The Project Gutenberg eBook, The Formation of Christendom, Volume VI, by Thomas W. (Thomas William) Allies This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org Title: The Formation of Christendom, Volume VI The Holy See and the Wandering of the Nations, from St. Leo I to St. Gregory I Author: Thomas W. (Thomas William) Allies Release Date: June 28, 2009 [eBook #29268] Language: English Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 ***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE FORMATION OF CHRISTENDOM, VOLUME VI*** E-text prepared by Paul Dring, Steven Giacomelli, and the Project Gutenberg Online Distributed Proofreading Team (http://www.pgdp.net) from digital material generously made available by Internet Archive/Canadian Libraries (http://www.archive.org/details/toronto) Note: Images of the original pages are available through Internet Archive/Canadian Libraries. See http://www.archive.org/details/theholysee06alliuoft T H E H O L Y S E E AND THE WANDERING OF THE NATIONS FROM ST. LEO I. TO ST. GREGORY I. BY THOMAS W. ALLIES, K.C.S.G. AUTHOR OF THE "FORMATION OF CHRISTENDOM"; "CHURCH AND STATE AS SEEN IN THE FORMATION OF CHRISTENDOM"; "THE THRONE OF THE FISHERMAN"; "A LIFE'S DECISION"; AND "PER CRUCEM AD LUCEM" LONDON: BURNS & OATES, Limited NEW YORK: CATHOLIC PUBLICATION SOCIETY CO. 1888 THE LETTERS OF THE POPES AS SOURCES OF HISTORY. Cardinal Mai has left recorded his judgment that, "in matter of fact, the whole administration of the Church is learnt in the letters of the Popes".[1] I draw from this judgment the inference that of all sources for the truths of history none are so precious, instructive, and authoritative as these authentic letters contemporaneous with the persons to whom they are addressed. The first which has been preserved to us is that of Pope St. Clement, the contemporary of St. Peter and St. Paul. It is directed to the Church of Corinth for the purpose of extinguishing a schism which had there broken out. In issuing his decision the Pope appeals to the Three Divine Persons to bear witness that the things which he has written "are written by us through the Holy Spirit," and claims obedience to them from those to whom he sends them as words "spoken by God through us".[2] If the decisions of the succeeding Popes in the interval of nearly two hundred and fifty years between this letter of St. Clement, about the year 95, and the great letter of St. Julius to the Eusebianising bishops at Antioch in 342, had been preserved entire, the constitution of the Church in that interval would have shone before us in clear light. In fact, we only possess a few fragments of some of these decisions, for there was a great destruction of such documents in the persecution which occupied the first decade of the fourth century. But from the time of Pope Siricius, in the reign of the great Theodosius, a continuous, though not a perfect, series of these letters stretches through the succeeding ages. There is no other such series of documents existing in the world. They throw light upon all matters and persons of which they treat. This is a light proceeding from one who lives in the midst of what he describes, who is at the centre of the greatest system of doctrine and discipline, and legislation grounded upon both, which the world has ever seen. One, also, who speaks not only with a great knowledge, but with an unequalled authority, which, in every case, is like that of no one else, but can even be supreme, when it is directed with such a purpose to the whole Church. Every Pope can speak, as St. Clement, the first of this series, speaks above, claiming obedience to his words as "words spoken by God through us". In a former volume I made large use of the letters of Popes from Siricius to St. Leo. I have continued that use for the very important period from St. Leo to St. Gregory. Especially in treating of the Acacian schism I have gone to the letters of the Popes who had to deal with it—Simplicius, Felix III., Gelasius, Anastasius II., Symmachus, and Hormisdas. I have done the same for the important reign of Justinian; most of all for the grand pontificate of St. Gregory, which crowns the whole patristic period and sums up its discipline. I am, therefore, indebted in this volume, first and chiefly, to the letters of the Popes and the letters addressed to them by emperors and bishops, stored up in Mansi's vast collection of Councils (1759, 31 volumes). I am also much indebted to Cardinal Hergenröther's work Photius, sein Leben, und das griechische Schisma, and to his Handbuch der allgemeinen Kirchengeschichte, as the number of quotations from him will show. Again, I may mention the two histories of the city of Rome, by Reumont and Gregorovius, as most valuable. I acknowledge many obligations to Riffel's Geschichtliche Darstellung des Verhältnisses zwischen Kirche und Staat, with regard to the legislation of Justinian. The edition of Justinian referred to by me is Heimbach's Authenticum, Leipsic, 1851. I have consulted Hefele's Conciliengeschichte where need was. I have found Kurth's Origines de la Civilisation moderne instructive. I have used the carefully emended and supplemented German edition of Röhrbacher's history, by various writers— Rump and others. St. Gregory is quoted from the Benedictine edition. As these works are indicated in the notes as they occur with the single name of the author, I have given here their full titles. The present volume is the sixth of the Formation of Christendom, though it has a special title indicating the particular [Pg vi] [Pg vii] [Pg viii] part of that general subject which it treats. I have, therefore, added to the numbering of the chapters in the Table of Contents the number which they hold in the whole work. September 11, 1888. NOTES: Nova Patrum bibliotheca, p. vi.: In Pontificum reapse epistolis tota ecclesiæ administratio cognoscitur. See p. 351 below; also Church and State, pp. 198-200, for the full statement of this passage. TABLE OF CONTENTS. CHAPTER I. (XLIII.). The Holy See and the Wandering of the Nations. PAGE Introduction. Connection with Volume V. St. Leo's action, 1 Denial of the Primacy as acknowledged at Chalcedon suicidal on the part of those who believe in the Church, 3 Subject of this volume as compared with the fifth, 5 The second wonder in human history, 6 The acknowledgment of the Primacy and the political powerlessness of the city of Rome coeval, 6 The three hundred years from Genseric to Astolphus, 9 St. Leo in Rome after Genseric, 10 Political condition of Rome. Avitus emperor, 455-6, 13 Majorian emperor, 457-461, 14 Death of Pope Leo; changes seen by him in his life, 15 Hilarus Pope and Libius Severus emperor, 461-465, 16 The over-lordship of Byzantium admitted in the choice of the Greek Anthemius as emperor, 467, 18 Sidonius Apollinaris an eye-witness of Rome's splendour, subjection to Byzantium, and unchanged habits in 467, 19 Anthemius murdered and Rome plundered by Ricimer, 472, 20 Olybrius emperor, 472; Ricimer and Olybrius die of the plague, 20 Glycerius emperor, 473; Nepos, 474; Romulus Augustulus, 475, 21 The senate declares to the eastern emperor that an emperor of the West is needless, 22 The twenty-one years' death-agony of imperial Rome, 23 State of the western provinces since the death of Theodosius I., 24 The first and the second victory of the Church, 25 The effect produced by the wandering of the nations, 26 The Visigoth and Ostrogoth migrations, 27 Gaul overrun by Teuton invaders, 28 Arianism propagated by the Goths among the other tribes, 29 Burgundian kingdom of Lyons. Spain overrun, 30 The Vandals in North Africa and their persecution of Catholics, 31 The Hunnish inroads, 33 All the western provinces under Teuton governments, 35 Odoacer and Theodorick, 36 Odoacer succeeded by Theodorick after the capture of Ravenna, 38 The character of Theodorick's reign, 39 His fairness towards the Roman Church and Pontiff, 40 The contrast between Theodorick and Clovis, 42 The dictum of Ataulph on the Roman empire, 43 Ataulph and Theodorick represent the better judgments of the invaders, 44 The outlook of Pope Simplicius at Rome over the western provinces, 45 And over the eastern empire, 46 Basiliscus and Zeno the first theologising emperors, 47 How the races descending on the empire had become Arian, 49 [1] [2] [Pg x] The point of time when the Church was in danger of losing all which she had gained, 50 How the division of the empire called out the Primacy, 51 How the extinction of the western empire does so yet more, 53 How the Pope was the sole fixed point in a transitional world, 54 Guizot's testimony, 55 What St. Jerome, St. Augustine, and St. Leo did not foresee, which we behold, 57 CHAPTER II. (XLIV.). Cæsar fell down. Great changes in the Roman State following the time of St. Leo, 59 Nature of the succession in the Cæsarean throne, and then in the Byzantine, 61 Personal changes in the Popes and eastern emperors, 62 Gennadius succeeds Anatolius, and Acacius succeeds Gennadius in the see of Constantinople, 64 Acacius resists the Encyclikon of Basiliscus, 65 Letter of Pope Simplicius to the emperor Zeno, 66 Advancement of Acacius by Zeno, 69 Acacius induces Zeno to publish a formulary of doctrine, 70 John Talaia, elected patriarch of Alexandria, appeals for support to Pope Simplicius, 70 Pope Felix sends an embassy to the emperor, 71 His letter to Zeno, 72 His letter to Acacius, 73 His legates arrested, imprisoned, robbed, and seduced, 74 Pope Felix synodically deposes Acacius, 75 Enumerates his misdeeds in the sentence, 76 Synodal decrees in Italy signed by the Pope alone, 78 Letter of Pope Felix to Zeno setting forth the condemnation of Acacius, 79 The condition of the Pope when he thus wrote, 81 How Acacius received the Pope's condemnation, 83 The position which Acacius thereupon took up, 84 The greatness of the bishop of Constantinople identified with the greatness of his city, 84 The humiliations of Rome witnessed by Acacius, 86 How the Pope, under these humiliations, spoke to Acacius and to the emperor, 88 The Pope on the one side, Acacius on the other, represent an absolute contradiction, 89 Eudoxius and Valens matched by Acacius and Zeno, 92 Death of Acacius, and estimate of him by three contemporaries, 93 Fravita, succeeding Acacius, seeks the Pope's recognition, 93 Letters of the emperor and Fravita to the Pope, and his answers, 94 The position taken by Acacius not maintained by Zeno and Fravita, 96 Nor by Euphemius, who succeeds Fravita, 96 Euphemius suspects and resists the new emperor Anastasius, 97 Condition of the Empire and the Church at the accession of Pope Gelasius in 492, 98 The "libellus synodicus" on the emperor Anastasius, 100 With whom the four Popes—Gelasius, Anastasius, Symmachus, and Hormisdas —have to deal, 101 Euphemius, writing to the Pope, acknowledges him to be successor of St. Peter, 103 Gelasius replies to Euphemius, insisting on the repudiation of Acacius, 104 Absolute obedience of the Illyrian bishops professed to the Apostolic See, 105 Gelasius shows that the canons make the First See supreme judge of all, 106 Says that the bishop of Constantinople holds no rank among bishops, 107 Praises bishops who have resisted the wrongdoings of temporal rulers, 108 The Holy See, in virtue of its Principate, confirms every Council, 109 Gelasius in 494 defines to the emperor the domain of the Two Powers, 110 And the subordination of the temporal ruler in spiritual things, 111 The words of Gelasius have become the law of the Church, 113 The emperor Anastasius deposes Euphemius by the Resident Council, 114 Pope Gelasius, in a council of seventy bishops at Rome, sets forth the divine institution of the Primacy, 115 [Pg xi] [Pg xii] And the order of the three Patriarchal Sees, 115 And three General Councils—the Nicene, Ephesine, and Chalcedonic, 115 Denies to the see of Constantinople any rank beyond that of an ordinary bishop, and omits the Council of 381, 116 Death of Pope Gelasius and character of his pontificate, 118 His own description of the time in which he lived, 118 CHAPTER III. (XLV.). Peter stood up. Pope Anastasius: his letter to the emperor Anastasius, 120 He makes the Pope's position in the Church parallel with that of the emperor in the world, 121 He writes to Clovis on his conversion, 122 St. Gregory of Tours notes the prosperity of Catholic kingdoms and the decline of Arian in the West, 123 Letter of St. Avitus, bishop of Vienne, to Clovis on his baptism, 124 He recognises the vast importance of the professing the Catholic faith by Clovis, 125 And the duty of Clovis to propagate the faith in peoples around, 126 How the words of St. Avitus to Clovis were fulfilled in history, 127 The election of Pope Symmachus traversed by the emperor's agent, 128 His letter termed "Apologetica" to the eastern emperor, 129 The imperial and papal power compared, 131 The papal and the sovereign power the double permanent head of human society, 133 Emperors wont to acknowledge Popes on their accession, 134 Inferences to be deduced from this letter, 135 The answer of the emperor Anastasius is to stir up a fresh schism at Rome, 136 The Synodus Palmaris, without judging the Pope, declares him free from all charge, 137 Letter of the bishop of Vienne to the Roman senate upon this Council, 139 The cause of the Bishop of Rome is not that of one bishop, but of the Episcopate itself, 140 Words of Ennodius, bishop of Pavia, embodied in the act of the Roman Council of 503, 142 Result of the attack of the emperor on the Pope is the recording in black and white that the First See is judged by no man, 143 The eastern Church under the emperor Anastasius, 143 He deposes Macedonius as well as Euphemius, 144 Both these bishops of Byzantium failed to resist his despotism, 147 Eastern bishops address Pope Symmachus to succour them, 148 Pope Hormisdas succeeds Symmachus in 514, 149 His instruction to the legates sent to Constantinople, 150 The bishop of Constantinople presents all bishops to the emperor, 157 The conditions for reunion made by Pope Hormisdas, 158 The treacherous conduct of the emperor, 159 Hormisdas describes Greek diplomacy, 160 The Syrian Archimandrites supplicate the Pope for help, 161 Sudden death of the emperor Anastasius, 162 The emperor Justin's election and antecedents, 162 He notifies his accession to the Pope, 163 The Pope holds a council and sends an embassy to Constantinople, 164 The bishop, clergy, and emperor accept the terms of the Pope, 165 The formulary of union signed by them, 167 The report of the legates to the Pope, 169 The emperor Justin's letter to the Pope, 170 Character of the period 455-519, 171 Political state of the East and West most perilous to the Church, 172 The Popes under Odoacer and Theodorick, 173 How Acacius took advantage of the political situation, 174 The meaning and range of his attempt, 175 The Pope from 476 onwards rests solely upon his Apostolate, 176 The seven Popes who succeed St. Leo, 179 The seven bishops who succeed Anatolius at Constantinople, 180 [Pg xiii] [Pg xiv] [Pg xv] The eastern emperors in this time, 182 The state of the eastern patriarchates, Alexandria and Antioch, 184 The waning of secular Rome reveals the power of the Pontificate, 185 The Popes alone preserved the East from the Eutychean heresy, 185 The position of St. Leo maintained by the seven following Popes, 186 The submission to Hormisdas an act of the "undivided" Church, 187 The adverse circumstances which developed the Pope's Principate, 188 CHAPTER IV. (XLVI.). Justinian. Sequel in Justinian of the submission to Pope Hormisdas, 189 His acknowledgment of the Primacy to Pope John II. in 533, 190 Reply of Pope John II. confirming the confession sent to him by Justinian, 191 The Pandects of Justinian issued in the same year, 192 Close interweaving of ecclesiastical and temporal interests, 193 Interference with the freedom of the papal election by the temporal ruler, 194 Letter of Cassiodorus as Prætorian prefect to Pope John II., 195 Justinian all his reign acknowledged the Primacy of the Pope, 196 His character, purposes, and actions, 196 Succeeds his uncle the emperor Justin I., 198 Great political changes coeval with his succession, 199 He reconquers Northern Africa by Belisarius, 199 The Catholic bishops of Africa meet again in General Council, 200 They send an embassy to consult Pope John II., 201 Pope Agapetus notes their reference to the Apostolic Principate, 202 Great renown of Justinian at the reconquest of Africa, 203 Pope Agapetus at Constantinople deposes its bishop, 204 Justinian begins the Gothic War. Belisarius enters Rome, 205 He is welcomed as restorer of the empire, 206 The empress Theodora deposes Pope Silverius by Belisarius, 207 First siege of Rome by Vitiges, 210 The mausoleum of Hadrian stripped of its statues, 211 Vitiges, having lost half his army, raises the siege, 213 Belisarius, having reconquered Italy, is recalled for the war with Persia, 214 Totila, elected Gothic king, renews the war, 214 Visits St. Benedict at Monte Cassino, and is warned by him, 215 Second siege of Rome by Totila, 216 Rome taken by Totila in 546, 216 Third capture of Rome by Belisarius, in 547, 217 Fourth capture of Rome by Totila, in 549, 218 Totila defeated and killed by Narses at Taginas, 219 Fifth capture of Rome by Narses, in 552, 220 End of the Gothic war, in 555, 221 Its effect on the civil condition of the Pope, Italy, and Rome, 222 The sufferings of Rome from assailants and defenders, 223 The new test of papal authority applied by these events, 225 Vigilius, having become legitimate Pope, is sent for by Justinian, 226 Church proceedings at Constantinople after the death of Pope Agapetus, 227 The patriarch Mennas, in conjunction with the emperor, consecrates at Constantinople a patriarch of Alexandria, 228 The Origenistic struggle in the eastern empire, 229 Justinian theologising, 230 The whole East urged to consent to his edict on doctrine, 231 Pope Vigilius, summoned by Justinian, enters Constantinople, 232 After long conferences with emperor and bishops he issues a Judgment, 234 The Pope and emperor agree upon holding a General Council, 235 The emperor's despotism, and the bishops crouching before it, 236 The Pope takes sanctuary, and is torn away from the altar, 237 Flies to the church at Chalcedon, 238 The bishops relent, and the Pope returns to Constantinople, 239 Eutychius, succeeding Mennas, proposes a council under presidency of the Pope, 239 The emperor causes it to meet under Eutychius without the Pope, 240 [Pg xvi] [Pg xvii] Proceedings of the Council. The Pope declines their invitation, 241 Close of the Council, without the Pope's presence, 242 The Pope issues a Constitution apart from the Council, 242 Also a condemnation of the Three Chapters without mention of the Council, 243 The Pope on his way back to Rome dies at Syracuse, 244 The patriarch Eutychius, refusing to sign a doctrinal decree of Justinian, is deposed by the Resident Council, 244 Justinian issues his Pragmatic Sanction for government of Italy, 245 State of things following in Italy, 246 Justinian's conception of the relation between Church and State, 248 He gives to the decrees of Councils and to the canons the force of law, 250 Three leading principles in these enactments, 251 The State completely recognises the Church's whole constitution, 251 The episcopal idea thoroughly realised, 253 Concurrent action of the laws of Church and State herein, 254 Justinian further associated bishops with the civil government, 255 The part given to them in civil administration, 256 A system of mutual supervision in bishops and governors, 257 The branches of civil matters specially put under bishops, 259 The completeness and the cordiality of the alliance with the Church, 261 Which differentiates Justinian's attitude from that of modern governments, 262 In what Justinian was a true maintainer of the imperial idea, 264 The dark blot which lies upon Justinian, 267 How he passed from the line of defence to that of interference and mastery, 269 The result, spiritual and temporal, of Justinian's reign, 270 CHAPTER V. (XLVII.). St. Gregory the Great. The state of Rome as a city after the prefecture of Narses, 272 Contrast of Nova Roma, 274 The Rome of the Church a new city, 275 St. Gregory's antecedents as prefect, monk, nuncio, and deacon of the Roman Church, 276 Elected Pope against his will. His description of his work, 278 And of the time's calamity, 279 The utter misery of Rome expressed in the words of Ezechiel, 281 Contrast between the language used of Rome by St. Leo and St. Gregory, 283 St. Gregory closes his preaching in St. Peter's, overcome with sorrow, 284 The works of St. Gregory out of this Rome, 285 The Lombard descent on Italy, 287 Rome ransomed from the Lombards, and Monte Cassino destroyed, 290 The Primacy untouched by the temporal calamities of Rome, 292 Its unique prerogative brought out by unequalled sufferings, 293 The new city of Rome lived only by the Primacy, 294 St. Gregory's account of the Primacy to the empress Constantina, 295 He identifies his own authority with that of St. Peter, 296 Writes to the emperor Mauritius that the union of the Two Powers would secure the empire against barbarians, 297 Claims to the emperor St. Peter's charge over the whole Church, 298 John the Foster's assumed title on injury to the whole Church, 299 What St. Gregory infers from the three patriarchal sees being all sees of Peter, 301 Contrast drawn by St. Gregory between the Pope's Principate and John the Faster's assumed title, 302 The fatal falsehood which this title presupposed, 303 The opposing truth in the Principate made de Fide by the Vatican Council, 306 St. Leo against Anatolius, and St. Gregory against John the Faster, occupy like positions, 307 St. Gregory's title, "Servant of the servants of God," expresses the maxim of his government, 308 The fourteen books of St. Gregory's letters range over every subject in the whole Church, 309 The special relation between the sees of St. Peter and St. Mark, 311 Asserts his supremacy to the Lombard queen Theodelinda, 311 St. Gregory appoints the bishop of Arles to be over the metropolitans of Gaul, 312 [Pg xviii] [Pg xix] The venture of St. Gregory in attempting the conversion of England, 313 St. Augustine commended to queen Brunechild and consecrated by the bishop of Arles, and the English Church made by Gregory, 315 Work of St. Gregory in the Spanish Church, 316 He relates the martyrdom of St. Hermenegild, 316 His letters to St. Leander of Seville, 317 Conversion of king Rechared, 318 St. Gregory's letter of congratulation to him, 318 Letter of king Rechared informing the Pope of his conversion, 321 Gibbon's account of the government which was the result of Rechared's conversion, 322 The important principles thus consecrated by the Church, 324 Overthrow of the Arian kingdoms in Africa, Spain, Gaul and Italy, between Pope Felix III. and Pope Gregory I., 325 The equal failure of Genseric, Euric, Gondebald, and Theodorick, 327 The part in this which the Catholic bishops had, 329 The Spanish monarchy first of many formed by the Church, 331 Superiority of this government to the Byzantine absolutism, 332 St. Gregory as fourth doctor of the western Church, 334 St. Gregory as a chief artificer in the Church's second victory, 335 Summary of St. Gregory's action as metropolitan patriarch and Pope, 337 Councils held by him in Rome: protection of monks, 338 His management of the Patrimonium Petri, 340 His success with schismatics and heretics, 341 The Primacy from St. Leo to St. Gregory, 342 The continued rise of the bishop of Constantinople, 343-5 The political degradation and danger of Rome, 345 Long disaster reveals still more the purely spiritual foundation of the Primacy, 346 Testimony given by the disappearance of the Arian governments and the conversion of Franks and Saxons, 347 The patriarchate of Constantinople imposed by civil law, 348 The Nicene constitution in the East impaired by despotism and heresy, 349 The persistent defence of this constitution by the Popes, 350 The Petra Apostolica in the sixty Popes preceding Gregory, 352 As discerned by Hurter in the time of Pope Innocent III., 353 As in the time from Pope Innocent III. to Leo XIII., 355 The continuous Primacy from St. Peter to St. Gregory, 355 As Rome diminishes the Primacy advances, 356 The times in which it was exercised by St. Gregory, 358 The opposing forces which unite to sustain the Petra Apostolica, 359 Index, 361 THE HOLY SEE AND THE WANDERING OF THE NATIONS. CHAPTER I. THE HOLY SEE AND THE WANDERING OF THE NATIONS. [Pg xx] [Pg 1] "Rome's ending seemed the ending of a world. If this our earth had in the vast sea sunk, Save one black ridge whereon I sat alone, Such wreck had seemed not greater. It was gone, That empire last, sole heir of all the empires, Their arms, their arts, their letters, and their laws. The fountains of the nether deep are burst, The second deluge comes. And let it come! The God who sits above the waterspouts Remains unshaken." —A. de Vere, Legends and Records—"Death of St. Jerome". I ended the last chapter by drawing out that series of events in the Church's internal constitution and of changes in the external world of action outside and independent of the Church which combined in one result the exhibition to all and the public acknowledgment by the Church of the Primacy given by our Lord to St. Peter, and continued to his successors in the See of Rome. I showed St. Leo as exercising this Primacy by annulling the acts of an Ecumenical Council, the second of Ephesus, legitimately called and attended by his own legates, because it had denied a tenet of what St. Leo declared in a letter sent to the bishops and accepted by them to be the Christian faith upon the Incarnation itself. I showed him supported by the Church in that annulment, by the eastern episcopate, which attended the Council of Chalcedon, and by the eastern emperor, Marcian. Again, I showed him confirming the doctrinal decrees of the Ecumenical Council of Chalcedon, which followed the Council annulled by him, while he reversed and disallowed certain canons which had been irregularly passed. This he did because they were injurious to that constitution of the Church which had come down from the Apostles to his own time. And this act of his, also, I showed to be accepted by the bishop of Constantinople, who was specially affected, and by the eastern emperor, and by the episcopate: and also that the confirmation of doctrine on the one hand, and the rejection of canons on the other, were equally accepted. I also showed this great Council in its Synodical Letter to the Pope acknowledging spontaneously that very position of the Pope which the Popes had always set forth as the ground of all the authority which they claimed. The Council of Chalcedon addressed St. Leo "as entrusted by the Saviour with the guardianship of the Vine". But the Vine in the universal language of the Fathers betokened the whole Church of God. And the Council refers the confirmation of its acts to the Pope in the same document in which it asserts that the guardianship of the Vine was given to him by the Saviour Himself. This expression, "by the Saviour Himself," means that it was not given to him by the decree of any Council representing the Church. It is a full acknowledgment that the promises made to Peter, and the Pastorship conferred upon him, descended to his successor in the See of Rome. It is a full acknowledgment; for how else was St. Leo entrusted by the Saviour with the guardianship of the Vine? Those who so addressed him were equally bishops with himself; they equally enjoyed the one indivisible episcopate, "of which a part is held by each without division of the whole".[3] But this one, beside and beyond that, was charged with the whole—the Vine itself. This one point is that in which St. Peter went beyond his brethren, by the special gift and appointment of the Saviour Himself. The words, then, of the Council contain a special acknowledgment that the line of Popes after a succession of four hundred years sat in the person of Leo on the seat of St. Peter, with St. Peter's one sovereign prerogative. It is requisite, I think, distinctly to point out that Christians, whoever they are, provided only that they admit, as confessing belief in any one of the three creeds, the Apostolic, the Nicene, or the Athanasian, they do admit, that there is one holy Catholic Church, commit a suicidal act in denying the Primacy as acknowledged by the Church at the Council of Chalcedon. For such a denial destroys the authority of the Church herself both in doctrine and discipline for all subsequent time. If the Church, in declaring St. Leo to be entrusted by our Lord with the guardianship of the Vine, erred; if she asserted a falsehood, or if she favoured an usurpation, how can she be trusted for any maintenance of doctrine, for any administration of sacraments, for any exercise of authority? This consideration does not touch those who believe in no Church at all. They are in the position of that individual whom the great Constantine recommended to take a ladder and mount to heaven by himself. But it touches all who profess to believe in an episcopate, in councils, in sacraments, in an organised Church, in authority deposited in that Church, and, finally, in history and in historical Christianity. To all such it may surely be said, as the simplest enunciation of reasoning, that they cannot profess belief in the Church which the Creed proclaims while they accept or reject its authority as they please. Or to localise a general expression: A man does not follow the doctrine of St. Augustine if he accepts his condemnation of Pelagius, but denies that unity of the Church in maintaining which St. Augustine spent his forty years of teaching. The action of all such persons in the eyes of the world without amounts to this, that by denying the Primacy they disprove the existence of the Church. Their negation goes to the profit of total unbelief. Asserters of the Church's division are pioneers of infidelity, for who can believe in what has fallen? or is the kingdom of our Lord Jesus Christ a kingdom divided against itself? They who maintain schism generate agnostics. But I was prevented on a former occasion by want of space from dwelling with due force upon some circumstances of St. Leo's life. These are such as to make his time an era. I was occupied during a whole volume with the attempt to set forth in some sort the action of St. Peter's See upon the Greek and Roman world from the day of Pentecost to the [Pg 2] [Pg 3] [Pg 4] [Pg 5] complete recognition of the Universal Pastorship of Peter as inherited by the Roman Pontiff in the person of St. Leo. I approach now a further development of this subject. I go forward to treat of the Papacy, deprived of all temporal support from the fall of the western empire, taking up the secular capital into a new spiritual Rome, and creating a Christendom out of the northern tribes who had subverted the Roman empire. There is, I think, no greater wonder in human history than the creation of a hierarchy out of the principle of headship and subordination contained in our Lord's charge to Peter. It has been pointed out that the constitution of the Nicene Council itself manifested this principle, and was the proof of its spontaneous action in the preceding centuries, while its overt recognition, as seated in the Roman Pontiff, is seen in the pontificate of St. Leo. There is a second wonder in human history, on which it is the purpose of this volume to dwell. The Roman empire, in which the Pax Romana had provided a mould of widespread civilisation for the Church's growth, was at length broken up in the western half of it, by Teuton invaders occupying its provinces. These were all, at the time of their settlement, either pagan or Arian. There followed, in a certain lapse of time, the creation of a body of States whose centre of union and belief was the See of Peter. That is the creation of Christendom proper. The wonder seen is that the northern tribes, impinging on the empire, and settling on its various provinces like vultures, became the matter into which the Holy See, guiding and unifying the episcopate, maintaining the original principle of celibacy, and planting it in the institute of the religious life through various countries depopulated or barbarous, infused into the whole mass one spirit, so that Arians became Catholics, Teuton raiders issued into Christian kings, savage tribes thrown upon captive provincials coalesced into nations, while all were raised together into, not a restored empire of Augustus, but an empire holy as well as Roman, whose chief was the Church's defender (advocatus ecclesiæ), whose creator was the Roman Peter. It is not a little remarkable that this signal recognition by the Fourth General Council of the Roman Pontiff's authority coincided in time with the utter powerlessness to which Rome as a city was reduced. That city, on whose glory as queen of nations and civiliser of the earth her own bishop had dwelt with all the fondness of a Roman, when, year by year, on the least of St. Peter and St. Paul, he addressed the assembled episcopate of Italy, ran twice, in his own time, the most imminent danger of ceasing to exist. Italy was absolutely without an army to give her strongest cities a chance of resisting the desolation of Attila. Rome was without a force raised to save it from the pitiless robbery of Genseric. Without escort, and defended only by his spiritual character, Leo went forth to appeal before Attila for mercy to a heathen Mongol. There is no record of what passed at that interview. Only the result is known. The conqueror, who had swept with remorseless cruelty the whole country from the Euxine to the Adriatic Sea, who was now bent upon the seizure of Italy itself, and in his course had just destroyed Aquileia, was at Mantua marching upon Rome. His intention was proclaimed to crown all his acts of destruction with that of Rome. This was the dowry which he proposed to take for the hand of the last great emperor's granddaughter, proffered to him by the hapless Honoria herself. At the word of Leo the Scourge of God gave up his prey: he turned back from Italy, and relinquished Rome, and Leo returned to his seat. In the course of the next three years he confirmed, at the eastern emperor's repeated request, the doctrinal decrees of the great Council; but he humbled likewise the arrogance of Anatolius, and not all the loyalty of Marcian, not all the devotion of the empress and saint Pulcheria, could induce him to exalt the bishop of the eastern capital at the expense of the Petrine hierarchy. But during those same three years he saw, in Rome itself, Honoria's brother, the grandson of Theodosius, destroy his own throne, and thereupon the murderer of an emperor compel his widow to accept him in her husband's place, in the first days of her sorrow. He saw, further, that daughter of Theodosius and Eudoxia, when she learnt that the usurper of her husband's throne was likewise his murderer, call in the Vandal from Carthage to avenge her double dishonour. This was the Rome which awaited, trembling and undefended, the most profligate of armies, led by the most cruel of persecutors. Once more St. Leo, stripped of all human aid, went forth with his clergy on the road to the port by which Genseric was advancing, to plead before an Arian pirate for the preservation of the capital of the Catholic faith. He saved his people from massacre and his city from burning, but not the houses from plunder. For fourteen days Rome was subject to every spoliation which African avarice could inflict. Again, no record of that misery has been kept; but the hand of Genseric was heavier than that of Alaric, in proportion as the Vandal was cruel where the Ostrogoth was generous. Alaric would have fought for Rome as Stilicho fought, had he continued to be commanded by that Theodosius who made him a Roman general; but Genseric was the vilest in soul of all the Teuton invaders, and for fifty years, during the utter prostration of Roman power, he infested all the shores of the Mediterranean with the savagery afterwards shown by Saracen and Algerine. This second plundering of Rome was no isolated event. It was only the sign of that utter impotence into which Roman power in the West had fallen. The city of Rome was the trophy of Cæsarean government during five hundred years— from Julius, the most royal, to Valentinian, the most abject of emperors. And now its temporal greatness was lost for ever. It ceased to be the imperial city, but by the same stroke became from the secular a spiritual capital. The Pope, freed from the western Cæsar,[4] gave to the Cæsarean city its second and greater life: a life of another kind generating also an empire of another sort. The raid of Genseric in the year 455 is the first of three hundred years of warfare carried on from the time of the Vandal through the time of the Lombard, under the neglect and oppression of the Byzantine, until, in the year 755, Astolphus, the last, and perhaps the worst, of an evil brood, laid waste the campagna, and besieged the city. St. Leo, in his double embassy to Attila and Genseric, was an unconscious prophet of the time to come, a visible picture of three hundred years as singular in their conflict and their issue as those other three hundred which had their close in the Nicene Council. During all those ages the Pope is never secure in his own city. He sees the trophy of Cæsarean empire slowly perish away. The capital of the world ceases to be even the capital of a province. The eastern emperor, who still called himself emperor of the Romans, omitted for many generations even to visit the city [Pg 6] [Pg 7] [Pg 8] [Pg 9] [Pg 10] which he had subjected to an impotent but malignant official, termed an Exarch, who guarded himself by the marshes of Ravenna, but left Rome to the inroads of the Lombards. The last emperor who deigned to visit the old capital of his empire came to it only to tear from it the last relic of imperial magnificence. But then Jerusalem had fallen into the hands of the infidel, and Christian pilgrims, since they could no longer visit the sepulchre of Christ, flocked to the sepulchre of his Vicar the Fisherman. And thus Rome was become the place of pilgrimage for all the West. Saxon kings and queens laid down their crowns before St. Peter's threshold, invested themselves with the cowl, and died, healed and happy, under the shadow of the chief Apostle. When the three hundred years were ended, the arm of Pepin made the Pope a sovereign in his own newly-created Rome. During these three centuries, running from St. Leo meeting Genseric, the pilot of St. Peter's ship has been tossed without intermission on the waves of a heaving ocean, but he has saved his vessel and the freight which it bears—the Christian faith. And in doing this he has made the new-created city, which had become the place of pilgrimage, to be also the centre of a new world. As Leo came back from the gate leading to the harbour and re-entered his Lateran palace, undefended Rome was taken possession of by the Vandal. Leo for fourteen days was condemned to hear the cries of his people, and the tale of unnumbered insults and iniquities committed in the palaces and houses of Rome. When the stipulated days were over, the plunderer bore away the captive empress and her daughters from the palace of the Cæsars, which he had so completely sacked that even the copper vessels were carried off. Genseric also assaulted the yet untouched temple of Jupiter on the Capitol, and not only carried away the still remaining statues in his fleet which occupied the Tiber, but stripped off half the roof of the temple and its tiles of gilded bronze. He took away also the spoils of the temple at Jerusalem, which Vespasian had deposited in his temple of peace. Belisarius found them at Carthage eighty years later, and sent them as prizes to Constantinople.[5] Many thousand Romans of every age and condition Genseric carried as slaves to Carthage, together with Eudocia and her daughters, the eldest of whom Genseric compelled to marry his son Hunnerich. After sixteen years of unwilling marriage Eudocia at last escaped, and through great perils reached Jerusalem, where she died and was buried beside her grandmother, that other Eudocia, the beautiful Athenais whom St. Pulcheria gave to her brother for bride, and whose romantic exaltation to the throne of the East ended in banishment at Jerusalem. But one of the great churches at Rome is connected with her memory: since the first Eudocia sent to the empress her daughter at Rome half of the chains which had bound St. Peter at his imprisonment by Agrippa. When Pope Leo held the relics, which had come from Jerusalem, to those other relics belonging to the Apostle's captivity at Rome on his martyrdom, they grew together and became one chain of thirty-eight links. Upon this the empress in the days of her happiness built the Church of St. Peter ad Vincula to receive so touching a memorial of the Apostle who escaped martyrdom at Jerusalem to find it at Rome. Upon his delivery by the angel "from all the expectation of the people of the Jews," he "went to another place". There, to use the words of his own personal friend and second successor at Antioch, he founded "the church presiding over charity in the place of the country of the Romans,"[6] and there he was to find his own resting-place. The church was built to guard the emblems of the two captivities. The heathen festival of Augustus, which used to be kept on the 1st August at the spot where the church was founded, became for all Christendom the feast of St. Peter's Chains.[7] In the life of St. Leo by Anastasius, we read that after the Vandal ruin he supplied the parish churches of Rome with silver plate from the six silver vessels, weighing each a hundred pounds, which Constantine had given to the basilicas of the Lateran, of St. Peter, and of St. Paul, two to each. These churches were spared the plundering to which every other building was subjected. But the buildings of Rome were not burnt, though even senatorian families were reduced to beggary, and the population was diminished through misery and flight, besides those who were carried off to slavery. At this point of time the grandeur of Trajan's city[8] began to pass into the silence and desolation which St. Gregory in after years mourned over in the words of Jeremias on ruined Jerusalem. Let us go back with Leo to his patriarchal palace, and realise if we can the condition of things in which he dwelt at home, as well as the condition throughout all the West of the Church which his courage had saved from heresy. The male line of Theodosius had ended with the murder of Valentinian in the Campus Martius, March 16, 455. Maximus seized his throne and his widow, and was murdered in the streets of Rome in June, 455, at the end of seventy-seven days. When Genseric had carried off his spoil, the throne of the western empire, no longer claimed by anyone of the imperial race, became a prey to ambitious generals. The first tenant of that throne was Avitus, a nobleman from Gaul, named by the influence of the Visigothic king, Theodorich of Toulouse. He assumed the purple at Arles, on the 10th July, 455. The Roman senate, which clung to its hereditary right to name the princes, accepted him, not being able to help itself, on the 1st January, 456; his son-in-law, Sidonius Apollinaris, delivered the customary panegyric, and was rewarded with a bronze statue in the forum of Trajan, which we thus know to have escaped injury from the raid of Genseric. But at the bidding of Ricimer, who had become the most powerful general, the senate deposed Avitus; he fled to his country Auvergne, and was killed on the way in September, 456. All power now lay in the hands of Ricimer. He was by his father a Sueve; by his mother, grandson of Wallia, the Visigothic king at Toulouse. With him began that domination of foreign soldiery which in twenty years destroyed the western empire. Through his favour the senator Majorian was named emperor in the spring of 457. The senate, the people, the army, and the eastern emperor, Leo I., were united in hailing his election. He is described as recalling by his many virtues the best Roman emperors. In his letter to the senate, which he drew up after his election in Ravenna, men thought they heard the voice of Trajan. An emperor who proposed to rule according to the laws and tradition of the old [Pg 10] [Pg 11] [Pg 12] [Pg 13] [Pg 14] time filled Rome with joy. All his edicts compelled the people to admire his wisdom and goodness. One of these most strictly forbade the employment of the materials from older buildings, an unhappy custom which had already begun, for, says the special historian of the city, the time had already come when Rome, destroying itself, was made use of as a great chalk-pit and marble quarry;[9] and for such it served the Romans themselves for more than a thousand years. They were the true barbarians who destroyed their city. But Majorian was unable to prevent the ruin either of city or of state. He had made great exertions to punish Genseric by reconquering Africa. They were not successful; Ricimer compelled him to resign on the 2nd of August, 461, and five days afterwards he died by a death of which is only known that it was violent. A man, says Procopius, upright to his subjects, terrible to his enemies, who surpassed in every virtue all those who before him had reigned over the Romans. Three months after Majorian, died Pope St. Leo. First of his line to bear the name of Great, who twice saved his city, and once, by the express avowal of a successor, the Church herself, Leo carried his crown of thorns one-and-twenty years, and has left no plaint to posterity of the calamities witnessed by him in that long pontificate. Majorian was the fourth sovereign whom in six years and a half he had seen to perish by violence. A man with so keen an intellectual vision, so wise a measure of men and things, must have fathomed to its full extent the depth of moral corruption in the midst of which the Church he presided over fought for existence. This among his own people. But who likewise can have felt, as he did, the overmastering flood of northern tribes—vis consili expers—which had descended on the empire in his own lifetime. As a boy he must have known the great Theodosius ruling by force of mind that warlike but savage host of Teuton mercenaries. In his one life, Visigoth and Ostrogoth, Vandal and Herule, Frank and Aleman, Burgundian and Sueve, instead of serving Rome as soldiers in the hand of one greater than themselves, had become masters of a perishing world's mistress; and the successor of Peter was no longer safe in the Roman palace which the first of Christian emperors had bestowed upon the Church's chief bishop. Instead of Constantine and Theodosius, Leo had witnessed Arcadius and Honorius; instead of emperors the ablest men of their day, who could be twelve hours in the saddle at need, emperors who fed chickens or listened to the counsel of eunuchs in their palace. Even this was not enough. He had seen Stilicho and Aetius in turn support their feeble sovereigns, and in turn assassinated for that support; and the depth of all ignominy in a Valentinian closing the twelve hundred years of Rome with the crime of a dastard, followed by Genseric, who was again to be overtopped by Ricimer, while world and Church barely escape from Attila's uncouth savagery. But Leo in his letters written in the midst of such calamities, in his sermons spoken from St. Peter's chair, speaks as if he were addressing a prostrate world with the inward vision of a seer to whom the triumph of the heavenly Jerusalem is clearly revealed, while he proclaims the work of the City of God on earth with equal assurance. Hilarus in that same November, 461, succeeded to the apostolic chair. Hilarus was that undaunted Roman deacon and legate who with difficulty saved his life at the Robber-Council of Ephesus, where St. Flavian, bishop of Constantinople, was beaten to death by the party of Dioscorus, and who carried to St. Leo a faithful report of that Council's acts. At the same time the Lucanian Libius Severus succeeded to the throne. All that is known of him is that he was an inglorious creature of Ricimer, and prolonged a government without record until the autumn of 465, when his maker got tired of him. He disappeared, and Ricimer ruled alone for nearly two years. Yet he did not venture to end the empire with a stroke of violence, or change the title of Patricius, bestowed upon him by the eastern emperor, for that of king. In this death-struggle of the realm the senate showed courage. The Roman fathers in their corporate capacity served as a last bond of the State as it was falling to pieces; and Sidonius Apollinaris said of them that they might rank as princes with the bearer of the purple, only, he adds significantly, if we put out of question the armed force.[10] The...