Florida State University Libraries Electronic Theses, Treatises and Dissertations The Graduate School 2003 The Figure of Judith in Anglo-Saxon England Misty Urban Follow this and additional works at the FSU Digital Library. For more information, please contact [email protected] THE FLORIDA STATE UNIVERSITY COLLEGE OF ARTS AND SCIENCES THE FIGURE OF JUDITH IN ANGLO-SAXON ENGLAND By MISTY URBAN A thesis submitted to the Department of English in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts Degree Awarded: Fall Semester, 2003 The members of the Committee approve the thesis of Misty Urban defended on October 13, 2003. David F. Johnson Professor Directing Thesis Eric Walker Committee Member Dan Vitkus Committee Member Approved: Bruce Boehrer Director of Graduate Studies The Office of Graduate Studies has verified and approved the above named committee members. ii To Roy and Mary who made everything possible iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to thank the helpful staff at Strozier Library, Florida State University, for their unfailing courtesy and assistance and for giving me a home away from home. My eternal esteem goes to David Johnson, for setting me on the path and seeing me through to its completion; my heartfelt thanks and appreciation to Kristi, for supporting me every step of the way, and much gratitude to Michelle, for being a primary source of inspiration. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS Abstract............................................................................................................vi Introduction.......................................................................................................1 Chapter One: Establishing Boundaries ..............................................................9 Chapter Two: The Female Face of Anglo-Saxon England................................20 Chapter Three: Towards a New Feminine Ideal...............................................46 Chapter Four: The Life and Times of Judith.................................................... 65 Chapter Five: Reading Judith........................................................................... 96 Conclusion: Judith as Peace-Weaver...............................................................124 Selected Bibliography.....................................................................................134 Biographical Sketch .......................................................................................142 v ABSTRACT This paper explores the appearances of the character of Judith in the literature of Anglo-Saxon England. Transported from the Apocryphal book of the Old Testament to the Latin Vulgate Bible by St. Jerome, this Hebrew heroine held an enduring fascination for medieval and early modern writers and artists, and her story gained in stature and meaning with each telling. This paper explores the interpretations and implications of the use of the Judith story in Anglo-Saxon times. Focusing on each work in context of the larger tradition, the paper analyzes the impact the literature might have had on its audience, specifically in what it suggests about prevailing attitudes toward women. The exploration will begin with a broad survey of the cultural attitudes concerning women in Anglo-Saxon England and will then proceed to a closer examination of the portrayal of women in various types of literature. Next the paper will examine the tradition of story- telling and interpretation that grew around Judith, beginning during the early years of the Christian Church and flowering in the poetry and prose of Anglo-Saxon England. This paper argues that readings of the Judith story comment revealingly on the place of women in Anglo-Saxon society as well as the possibilities for action and selfhood the Judith stories characterize for the female element of the audience. As a narrative tradition developing into myth, the story of Judith contains and contributes to the culture’s consciousness of women as well as the consciousness of individual women. Ultimately, the analysis shows that that Judith’s incarnations in Anglo-Saxon England bear a curiously modern relevance. She transcends genre, context, and culture, performing a boundary- and barrier-crossing function which even today can serve to liberate and perpetuate healthy perceptions of culture, community, and womanhood which integrate rather than isolate the female element of society. vi INTRODUCTION God has sent me to accomplish with you things which will astonish the whole world whenever people hear about them. --Judith to Holofernes, The Book of Judith1 The purpose of this paper is to explore the figure of Judith in Anglo-Saxon literature with an eye toward discovering what her literary appearances might suggest or reflect about prevailing Anglo-Saxon cultural attitudes regarding women. The Judith in question, as the heroine of a remarkable story ing the Hebrew Bible and later the Old Testament of the Christian Bible, has had a lively and enduring appeal for audiences across the ages. Margarita Stocker’s Judith, Sexual Warrior, published in 1998, provides a fascinating and highly energetic look at manifestations of Judith from her conception in the ancient Near East to her recent appearances in the character of feminists and killers (the two of which are often confused) in opera, art, and modern films like Thelma and Louise. The Story of Judith in German and English Literature, a chronological survey by Edna Purdie of adaptations of the Judith story from the 9th century to the 20th, 2 suggests by Judith’s popularity as a figure of art and poetry that something about her fascinated the Germanic spirit, leading not just to early English treatments but several versions of her story on the Continent as well. In 405 AD a Latin poet named Prudentius adopted Judith’s allegorical capacity and used her in his Psychomachia, establishing her for all time as an emblem of Western virtue. Around the same time, St. Jerome translated her story into a compilation that would come to be known as the Vulgate Bible and would be the chief means of her 1 Translation from the Greek by Carey A. Moore. 2 This survey was published in 1927; the opportunity exists for a modern scholar to fill in the gaps of the last 75 years. It might be even more interesting to see what ways the Judith story has been transmitted to Eastern history and culture, if indeed it has; I have not, in my research, encountered such a survey. Stocker’s focus—also her subtitle—is “Women and Power in Western Culture.” 1 transmission into Anglo-Saxon England. Now institutionalized as a figure of moral didacticism, Judith was employed in the work of the distinguished seventh-century scholar Aldhelm to serve his purposes of spiritual instruction. But her power as a poetic symbol was not limited to virtue of character, as both a churchman named Ælfric and the unknown poet of the lyrical Old English fragment used her story as a narrative of national resistance and an illustration of the triumph of faith. Her popularity seems to have suffered a bit in the later Middle Ages; the medieval French found her an unpromising figure for interpretation in their evolving stories of fin d’amor, seeing as how Judith beheads her admirer. The break-out bestseller of Anglo-Norman times, Geoffrey of Monmouth’s Historia Regum Britanniae, deals with the doings of kings, not Jewesses. However, Judith survives in several Middle High German renditions and then, in the Renaissance, is reborn on the resurging tide of interest in literature and letters, virtually exploding in the poetry and visual arts as well as onto the stage. Judith holds as broad a fascination for scholars and critics as she does for general audiences. Several magnificent studies of the Biblical story exist; this paper will chiefly consult Moore, Cowley, Enslin and Zeitlin, and Toni Craven. Various editors of Aldhelm, Ælfric, and particularly the poem fragment deal with the texts both combined and separately in fine and insightful detail. However, to my knowledge, no critical work exists that ties together the work of Aldhem, Ælfric, and the anonymous poet in an attempt to understand Judith in light of attitudes towards and representations of Anglo- Saxon women. This work will examine Judith as an Anglo-Saxon tradition, tracing her emergence and evolution in both poetry and prose against the context of the important historical movements, social trends, and prevailing cultural attitudes which will, I believe, shed new light on the contested views of the place of women within Anglo-Saxon society. Chapter 1 commences with an introduction to the Anglo-Saxon era and its literature in order to establish the character of this historical period. Chapter 2 discusses the current evidence pertaining to the particular position and the peculiar pressures faced by Anglo-Saxon women and then reviews the literature concerning the historical, political, and socio-cultural assessments that have been made of the women of this period. Chapter 3 examines the women within the literature, with attention to evidence for a female heroic ideal and valuations of the feminine that appear in prose and poetry of both 2 a secular and an ecclesiastic nature. Chapter 4 takes up the original story of Judith, assesses its meaning and function within its own time, and then turns to an analysis of Judith’s various representations in certain literature of late antiquity and the Anglo-Saxon age. Chapter 5 undertakes various readings of Judith, broadly applying certain theoretical approaches that reveal the variety and multiplicity of interpretations encoded within the narrative. The conclusion, I hope, establishes what looking at Judith in the Anglo-Saxon literature can tell us about Anglo-Saxon women, and briefly suggests how this knowledge might help us understand the relationship between women, history, and literature in the ages to follow. Relevance In pursuing various readings of Judith in her Anglo-Saxon incarnations, I hope not only to understand the place of women as they were integrated into Anglo-Saxon society but also lay a foundation for understanding the curious tensions between misogyny and glorification, derision and deification, revulsion and adoration—what Marty Williams and Anne Echols call the “pit and pedestal” mentality3—that has been an earmark of Western philosophy and culture since the classical age and has continuously influenced the literary and legal treatment of women through the Middle Ages, the Renaissance, the Enlightenment, and well into the modern age. In fact the women of today still find themselves trying to emerge from under the cultural legacy of this worldview, but the shadow of two millennia of thought has yet proved impossible to fully reverse despite recurring movements for equality in the Anglo world.4 As both a medieval student and a modern feminist, I ultimately hope to discover, through historical inspiration, a means of re-envisioning modern society that allows both men and women to be fully-realized people and fully functional citizens of the world. 3 Though their book Women in The Middle Ages: Between Pit and Pedestal largely addresses the documented history of attitudes toward women in the later Middle Ages, for which there is more evidence than exists in our period, certain connections and inherited modes of thought clearly exist. 4 I have in mind the publication of Mary Wollstonecraft’s Vindication of the Rights of Women (1792), the Seneca Falls convention with its Declaration of Sentiments (1848), and the Equal Rights Amendment proposed in 1972, all landmarks in the struggle for female emancipation. 3