The re-introduction of captive bred cheetah into a wild environment, Makulu Makete Wildlife Reserve, Limpopo province, South Africa By Nkabeng Thato Maruping Submitted in the partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree Magister Scientiae in Wildlife Management Centre for Wildlife Management Faculty of Natural and Agricultural Sciences University of Pretoria Pretoria Supervisor: Professor W. van Hoven Co-supervisor: Kelly. A. Marnewick January 2011 i ©© UUnniivveerrssiittyy ooff PPrreettoorriiaa The re-introduction of captive bred cheetah into a wild environment, Makulu Makete Wildlife Reserve, Limpopo province, South Africa By Nkabeng Thato Maruping ii The re-introduction of captive bred cheetah into a wild environment, Makulu Makete Wildlife Reserve, Limpopo province, South Africa By Nkabeng Maruping Supervisor: Professor W. van Hoven Co-supervisor: Kelly A. Marnewick Faculty of Natrual and Agricultural Sciences University of Pretoria Magister Scientiae (Wildlife Management) ABSTRACT The conservation benefits of animals in captivity are limited to education and genetic preservation. However, where species or sub-species are critically endangered, the release of captive bred animals into the wild can be used as a strategy to supplement existing populations or to form new founder populations. Cheetahs Acinonyx jubatus born in captivity have no prior experience of survival in wild circumstances. Captive bred cheetahs are currently the greatest source of individuals. This project worked in conjunction with IUCN reintroduction guidelines and pre-existing recommendations in an attempt to develop an ideal methodology of reintroducing captive bred cheetah into the wild. Three captive bred cheetahs, one female and two males, were reintroduced onto Makulu Makete Wildlife Reserve, a predator proofed reserve in the Limpopo province of South Africa, as part of an experimental rehabilitation project. The cheetahs had to lose their homing instinct, be habituated to researchers, become accustomed to eating venison, chewing skin, infrequent large meals and strength development within the three months spent in the enclosures. The cheetahs iii were habituated to the field researchers on foot and to research vehicles for ease of monitoring. A soft release methodology was used to ease the cheetahs into the environment. Upon release they were tracked twice daily to observe behavior and interaction with their environment. The duration of the project was 20 months which includes enclosure time. The establishment of a home range indicated that the resource need of the cheetahs was satisfied. Eight habitat types were identified in the study area and all cheetahs encompassed part of each in their home range. Though the hunting instinct was present in all the cheetahs, the appropriate hunting techniques and prey selection had to be learned overtime. There was no difference between what was stalked and what was caught. From the observed kills, prey weight ranged from small <40 kg to medium <160 kg. This weight range is comparable to wild cheetahs that select prey within the same range. Each cheetah hunted every four to five days and consumed three to five kilograms of meat per day. Nine prey species were identified, two of which were not detected during direct observations. In the collection of scat, the trained dog found approximately a scat per hour while each direct observation by the researchers took approximately 10 hours. These captive bred cheetahs had to learn how to hunt and how to select appropriate prey thus addressing learned behavior versus instinct. Given the frequency and intensity of injuries sustained and the extensive human influence in the form of veterinary treatment, the reintroduction was not a success. However the techniques developed and modified are relevant for future endeavors‟. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................... iii LIST OF TABLES ........................................................................................................ viii LIST OF FIGURES......................................................................................................... ix LIST OF APPENDICES ................................................................................................ xii ACKNOWLEDMENTS .................................................................................................... 1 Chapter 1: The feasibility of releasing captive bred cheetah Acinonyx jubatus into a wild environment: taming the controversy ............................................................... 2 Existing threats to cheetah populations .................................................................. 3 About cheetahs .......................................................................................................... 6 Conservation benefits for the Asiatic cheetah Acinonyx jubatus venaticus ......... 7 Reintroduction regulations ...................................................................................... 8 OBJECTIVES ............................................................................................................... 11 REFERENCES .............................................................................................................. 11 Chapter 2: Makulu Makete Wildlife Reserve, Limpopo province: release site and animal care of three captive bred cheetah Acinonyx jubatus .................................. 18 STUDY AREA ............................................................................................................... 18 STUDY ANIMALS ......................................................................................................... 21 METHODS .................................................................................................................... 23 Vegetation structure ............................................................................................... 23 Vegetation density ................................................................................................... 24 Bush encroachment and clearing .......................................................................... 25 Veterinary care........................................................................................................ 26 Monitoring ............................................................................................................... 26 MATERIALS ................................................................................................................. 28 Cheetah holding facilities ....................................................................................... 28 Plant Community 1 Terminalia prunioides Veld .................................................. 28 Plant Community 2 Acacia tortilis Veld ................................................................ 29 Vegetation communities ......................................................................................... 29 Northern Dry Terminalia prunioides Veld ............................................................... 32 Colophospermum Mopane Veld ............................................................................... 32 Dense Commiphora Woodlands ............................................................................... 32 Mountain and Hilly Terrain Veld ............................................................................. 33 Southern Sand Plains Veld........................................................................................ 33 River and Flood Plains .............................................................................................. 34 Drainage Course Veld ............................................................................................... 34 v Old and Cultivated Land ........................................................................................... 35 REFERENCES .............................................................................................................. 35 Chapter 3: The conditioning of captive bred cheetah Acinonyx jubatus to survive in a wild environment: feeding, habituation, behavior and pre and post release training ......................................................................................................................... 37 STUDY ANIMALS ......................................................................................................... 38 Female Cheetahs ..................................................................................................... 40 Male Cheetahs ......................................................................................................... 40 CAPTIVITY ................................................................................................................... 42 Feeding in captivity ................................................................................................. 42 Habituation in captivity .......................................................................................... 42 Behavior in captivity ............................................................................................... 44 METHODS .................................................................................................................... 44 Enclosure design...................................................................................................... 44 Feeding regimes ....................................................................................................... 45 Habituation techniques implemented ................................................................... 51 Behavior and reaction towards other cheetah...................................................... 53 RESULTS ..................................................................................................................... 53 Feeding ..................................................................................................................... 53 Habituation .............................................................................................................. 59 Behavior ................................................................................................................... 59 DISCUSSION ................................................................................................................ 61 CONCLUSION .............................................................................................................. 63 REFERENCES .............................................................................................................. 63 Chapter 4: Range use and habitat interaction by captive bred cheetah Acinonyx jubatus released into a wild environment: Makulu Makete Wildlife Reserve, Limpopo province ....................................................................................................... 66 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................... 66 Habitat use ............................................................................................................... 67 Range use ................................................................................................................. 67 METHODS .................................................................................................................... 68 Statistical analysis ................................................................................................... 70 RESULTS ..................................................................................................................... 71 Range use ................................................................................................................. 71 Habitat use ............................................................................................................... 80 CONCLUSION .............................................................................................................. 90 REFERENCES ........................................................................................................ 91 vi Chapter 5: Learning versus instinct: Prey selection and hunting techniques implemented by reintroduced captive bred cheetah ................................................ 94 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................... 94 METHODS .................................................................................................................... 98 Direct observation ................................................................................................... 99 Statistical analysis ................................................................................................. 100 RESULTS ................................................................................................................... 101 Selected prey and the hunting techniques implemented ................................... 102 Captive cheetah hunting success in different vegetation communities ............ 108 Cheetah behavior at kill site: Kleptoparasitism, vigilance and amount consumed ............................................................................................................... 112 Comparative hunting of captive versus wild cheetah ........................................ 117 DISCUSSION .............................................................................................................. 120 REFERENCES ............................................................................................................ 122 Chapter 6: The use of scatology to supplement and determine prey species of reintroduced captive bred cheetah Acinonyx jubatus ............................................ 127 INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................... 127 METHODS .................................................................................................................. 129 Dog Training.......................................................................................................... 130 Stage 1 .................................................................................................................... 131 Stage 2 .................................................................................................................... 134 Stage 3 .................................................................................................................... 136 Stage 4 .................................................................................................................... 136 Scatology ................................................................................................................ 137 RESULTS ................................................................................................................... 138 Prey species identified........................................................................................... 138 Comparison of scatology effort ............................................................................ 140 DISCUSSION .............................................................................................................. 144 REFERENCES ............................................................................................................ 145 SUMMARY ................................................................................................................. 149 REFERENCES .............................................................................................................. 156 APPENDIX I ................................................................................................................ 159 APPENDIX II ............................................................................................................... 160 vii LIST OF TABLES Table 2.1. Makulu Makete Wildlife Reserve vegetation community, size, description and habitat unit equivalent. .................................................................................................. 30 Table 3.1. Identification name, age and weight of captive cheetahs when taken to Makulu Makete Wildlife Reserve for reintroduction. F for female and M for male. .......... 39 Table 3.2. Timeline of captive bred cheetah reintroduction project, Makulu Makete Wildlife Reserve. En= Enclosure, Re= Release, In= Injury, Rm= Removal and D= Death…………………………………………………..………………………………………38 Table 4.1. Number of fixes, home range size and percentage of reserve used by captive bred cheetahs released on Makulu Makete Wildlife Reserve…………………………….70 Table 4.2. Time and distance traveled before captive bred cheetahs settled into home ranges, Makulu Makete Wildlife Reserve (mn = mean). ................................................. 74 Table 4.3. Comparison of home ranges using different methods for analysis of three captive bred cheetahs released onto Makulu Makete Wildlife Reserve. ........................ 75 Table 4.4. Habitat preference (Shannon 2006) of captive cheetahs Acinonyx jubatus released into Makulu Makete Wildlife Reserve. ............................................................. 87 Table 5.1. Prey species, mass and kill proportions of three captive bred cheetahs released on Makulu Makete Wildlife Reserve. ............................................................. 105 Table 5.2. Relative abundance and preference ratings of prey species caught by captive bred cheetahs, Makulu Makete Wildlife Reserve. The higher the preference rating the more the cheetahs select the prey. The closer to +1 the Jacob‟s index the more preferred the prey, the closer to -1 the less preferred. ................................................. 106 Table 5.3. Prey weight (S.E= 2.90), retention time (S.E= 2.77) and percentage of carcass consumed (S.E= 2.46) at kill sites of three captive bred cheetahs released on Makulu Makete Wildlife Reserve. ................................................................................ 113 Table 6.1. A comparison in the effort (hours) of scats collected by the researchers and the scats collected by the trained detection dog of three reintroduced captive bred cheetah onto Makulu Makete Wildlife Reserve during a 13 month study period. The total number of scats found excludes the 6 undated scats. ................................................. 143 viii LIST OF FIGURES Fig. 2.1. Makulu Makete Wildlife Reserve where three captive bred cheetah were reintroduced (www.maps.google.co.za. 30/11/09). ........................................................ 20 Fig. 2.2. Vegetation communities of Makulu Makete Wildlife Reserve. ......................... 31 Fig. 3.1. Dimensions and specifications of cheetah enclosures on Makulu Makete Wildlife Reserve. ........................................................................................................... 46 Fig. 3.2. First month feeding regime and condition of cheetah male coalition on Makulu Makete Wildlife Reserve. ............................................................................................... 56 Fig. 3.3. Second month feeding regime and condition of single captive female cheetah on Makulu Makete Wildlife Reserve. ............................................................................. 53 Fig. 3.4. Third month feeding regime and condition of cheetah male coalition on Makulu Makete Wildlife Reserve. ............................................................................................... 56 Fig. 3.5. First month feeding regime and condition of single captive female cheetah on Makulu Makete Wildlife Reserve. .................................................................................. 57 Fig. 3.6. Second month feeding regime and condition of single captive female cheetah on Makulu Makete Wildlife Reserve. ............................................................................. 57 Fig. 3.7. Third month feeding regime and condition of single captive female cheetah on Makulu Makete Wildlife Reserve. .................................................................................. 57 Fig. 3.8. First month feeding regime and condition of second captive cheetah male coalition on Makulu Makete Wildlife Reserve................................................................. 58 Fig. 3.9. Second month feeding regime and condition of second captive cheetah male coalition on Makulu Makete Wildlife Reserve................................................................. 58 Fig. 3.10. Third month feeding regime and condition of second captive cheetah male coalition on Makulu Makete Wildlife Reserve................................................................. 58 Fig. 4.1. Home Range of captive bred female cheetah F536 using Local Convex Hull at k=14, Makulu Makete Wildlife Reserve. A-Northern Dry Terminalia pruinoides Veld, B- Mopane Veld, C-Dense Commiphora Woodland, D-Mountain and Hilly Terrain, E- Southern Sand Veld, F-River and Flood Plain, G-Drainage Course and H-Old and Cultivated Land. ............................................................................................................ 76 Fig. 4.2. Home Range of captive bred cheetah male M579 using Local Convex Hull at k=13. Makulu Makete Wildlife Reserve. A-Northern Dry Terminalia pruinoides Veld, B- Mopane Veld, C-Dense Commiphora Woodland, D-Mountain and Hilly Terrain, E- Southern Sand Veld, F-River and Flood Plain, G-Drainage Course and H-Old and Cultivated Land. ............................................................................................................ 77 ix Fig. 4.3. Home Range of captive bred cheetah male M490 using Local Convex Hull at k=1. Makulu Makete Wildlife Reserve. A-Northern Dry Terminalia pruinoides Veld, B- Mopane Veld, C-Dense Commiphora Woodland, D-Mountain and Hilly Terrain, E- Southern Sand Veld, F-River and Flood Plain, G-Drainage Course and H-Old and Cultivated Land. ............................................................................................................ 78 Fig. 4.4. Relative activity levels for the first three months of release of three captive bred cheetahs released onto Makulu Makete Wildlife Reserve. ............................................. 79 Fig. 4.5. Percentage of vegetation communities encompassed in the home range of captive bred cheetah released on Makulu Makete Wildlife Reserve. ............................. 81 Fig. 4.6. Percentage of kills made per habitat type by released captive bred cheetah onto Makulu Makete Wildlife Reserve………………………………………………………77 Fig. 4.7. Number of fixes at sightings of released captive bred cheetah at 20 m (SE ± 0.63), 50 m (SE ± 1.70) and 100 m (SE ± 1.75) from the road on Makulu Makete Wildlife Reserve. ........................................................................................................................ 84 Fig. 4.8. Number of fixes at sightings of released captive bred cheetah at 20 m (SE ± 0.09), 50 m (SE ± 0.28) and 100 m (SE ± 0.87) from the drainage course on Makulu Makete Wildlife Reserve. ............................................................................................... 85 Fig. 4.9. Number of fixes at sightings of released captive bred cheetah at 20 m (SE ± 0.36), 50 m (SE ± 0.56) and 100 m (SE ± 0.81) from the Mogalakwena River on Makulu Makete Wildlife Reserve. ............................................................................................... 86 Fig. 5.1. The proportion of kills made relative to the abundance of the species caught by captive bred cheetah on Makulu Makete Wildlife Reserve. .......................................... 107 Fig. 5.2. Proportion of successful and missed hunts by captive bred cheetahs per vegetation community, Makulu Makete Wildlife Reserve. ............................................ 109 Fig. 5.3. Linear representation of relationship between grass height influence on successful hunting by reintroduced captive bred cheetah released on Makulu Makete Wildlife Reserve. ......................................................................................................... 110 Fig. 5.4. Linear representation of relationship between vegetation density influence on successful hunting by reintroduced captive bred cheetah released on Makulu Makete Wildlife Reserve(S.E = 0.3668, P>0.05). ..................................................................... 111 Fig. 5.5. Number of kills made per month by three captive bred cheetahs released on Makulu Makete Wildlife Reserve between April 2008 and May 2009 (There were no cheetahs present on the reserve in September and December 2008 and January 2009). .................................................................................................................................... 115 x