ENVIRONMENT The Science, Issues, and Solutions ENVIRONMENT The Science, Issues, and Solutions Mohan K. Wali Fatih Evrendilek M. Siobhan Fennessy Boca Raton London New York CRC Press is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business ENVIRONMENT The Science, Issues, and Solutions Mohan K. Wali Fatih Evrendilek M. Siobhan Fennessy Boca Raton London New York CRC Press is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business Cover design courtesy of Tim Meko.  In the background are North and South America, NASA’s “true color image,” by Reto Stöckli, courtesy of NASA. 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Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Wali, Mohan K. The environment: science, issues, and solutions / Mohan K. Wali, Fatih Evrendilek, M. Siobhan Fennessy. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-0-8493-7387-9 (hardcover : alk. paper) 1. Environmental education. 2. Environmental sciences--Study and teaching (Higher) 3. Interdisciplinary research. I. Evrendilek, Fatih. II. Fennessy, M. Siobhan. III. Title. GE70.W35 2009 363.7--dc22 2009004456 Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at http://www.taylorandfrancis.com and the CRC Press Web site at http://www.crcpress.com Dedicated to present and future students of all ages who seek environmental literacy Preface .........................................................................................xiii Table of Acknowledgments.......................................................................xv The Authors ...............................................................................xvii International System of Units (SI) .........................................xix Contents Section A: ecosystem Structure and Function Chapter 1: The Environment and the Nature of Scientific Enquiry .........................................................................3 Meaning and Significance of the Environment The Pale Blue Dot Stories in the News Advent of Global Environmental Awakening Focus on Environmental Problems Sharpens Advances in Environmental Research and Regulation The Scientific Method Types of Scientific Studies The Two Cultures and the Environment The Urge to Live, Live Well, and Live Better Chapter 2: Biosphere and the Science of Ecology ..............19 The Biosphere The Lithosphere The Hydrosphere The Science of Ecology The Ecosystem Concept Chapter 3: Atmosphere, Climate, and Organisms ...............33 Atmosphere Climate and Weather Global Climate and General Circulation Solar Radiation and Light Heat and Air Temperature Precipitation, Humidity, and Wind Influence of Topography Climate, Weather, and Humans Chapter 4: The Soil Environment ............................................51 Soil Defined Origin of Soils Soil Physical Characteristics Soil Chemical Relations Soil Biota Soils and Plant Distribution Soil Formation Major Soils of the World Chapter 5: The Aquatic Environment .....................................75 Characteristics of Water Hydrological Cycle Streams and Rivers Freshwater Lakes Saline Lakes Wetlands Oceans, Seas, and Estuaries Chapter 6: Biogeochemical Cycling of Materials ................97 Biogeochemical Cycles Drivers of Biogeochemical Cycles Hydrological or Water Cycle vii viii The Environment: Science, Issues, and Solutions Gaseous Cycles Mineral or Sedimentary Cycles Interactions of Biogeochemical Cycles Chapter 7: Energy Flows and Ecosystem Productivity ................................................................................115 Solar Energy—the Driving Variable Laws of Thermodynamics Terrestrial Primary Productivity Photosynthetic Pathways Ecological Controls on Primary Productivity Aquatic Primary Productivity Secondary Productivity Bioaccumulation through Food Webs Chapter 8: Population Ecology ...............................................137 Populations—the Central Units in Ecology and Evolution Population Growth Regulation of Population Size Spatial Patterns of Population Abundance Life Histories of Organisms Interspecific Interactions and Population Dynamics Chapter 9: Community Ecology and Succession ................157 Ecological Communities Community Structure Ecological Succession Changes in Succession Controls on Succession Mechanisms of Succession Rangeland Succession Concept of Climax, Old-Growth, or Mature Communities Chapter 10: Biomes—the Major Ecosystems of the World ......................................................................................179 Introduction Biomes Tundra and Alpine Taiga Temperate Deciduous Forest Grassland Temperate Coniferous Forest Dry-Mesic Forest Temperate Rain Forest Desert Tropical Rain Forest Tropical Savannas Ecotones Ecoregions Section B: contemporary environmental issues Chapter 11: Human Population Growth ...............................215 Introduction Forces Driving Human Population Growth Rapid Growth in Numbers Means Greater Consumption Table of Contents ix Biophysical Controls over Population Growth Increasing Consumption and Decreasing Natural Resources Uneven Access to Natural Capital Threatens Global Security Environmental Refugees Overall Assessment of Increasing Human Numbers Chapter 12: Land Use—Agriculture .....................................237 Agriculture in Retrospect Traditional and Industrialized Agriculture Food Bounty of the United States Energy Input into Agriculture The Green Revolution Land Use Conflicts Growing Monocultures Sustaining Energy Subsidies Biocides: Use, Persistence, and Health Effects Disruption of Biogeochemical Cycles Soil Erosion Desertification Animal Agriculture Challenges of Food Security Chapter 13: Land Use—Forest Resources ..........................259 Forest Ecosystems in Perspective Global and National Extent of Forests Types and Functions of Forests Forest Products Harvesting Deforestation and Its Underlying Causes Impacts on the Hydrological Cycle Impacts on Gaseous and Sedimentary Cycles Habitat Fragmentation and Loss of Biodiversity Forest Death: Mortality, Insects, and Pathogens Forest Fires Challenges for Forest Management Chapter 14: Land Use—Mining for Mineral and Coal Resources ...........................................................................279 Introduction Types of Minerals Mineral Exploration Extraction from the Ground Mineral Processing Consumption Patterns and Environmental Impacts Waste Production and Disposal—Eastern United States and Canada Waste Production and Disposal—Western United States and Canada Industrial Ecology Legislative Measures Chapter 15: Land Use—Urbanization and Transportation ..........................................................................293 Forces Driving Urbanization Trends of Urbanization Growing Global Urban Population Land Use Urban Transportation and Impacts Urban–Industrial Wastes and Biogeochemical Cycles Urban Climate and Air Pollutants Urban Vegetation An Afterword