The Eichmann Polemics: Hannah Arendt and Her Critics Michael Ezra Introduction Hannah Arendt, the German Jewish political philosopher who had escaped from a Nazi internment camp, [1] had obtained international fame and recognition in 1951 with her book The Origins of Totalitarianism. [2] Feeling compelled to witness the trial of Adolf Eichmann (‘an obligation I owe my past’), [3] she proposed to the editor of The New Yorker that she report on the prominent Nazi’s trial in Jerusalem. The editor gladly accepted the offer, placing no restrictions on what she wrote. [4] Arendt’s eagerly awaited ‘report’ finally appeared in The New Yorker in five successive issues from 16 February – 16 March 1963. In May 1963 the articles were compiled into a book published by Viking Press, Eichmann in Jerusalem: A Report on the Banality of Evil. During the Second World War, Adolf Eichmann had been the head of Section IV- B-4 in the Nazi SS, overseeing the deportation of the Jews to their deaths. After the war Eichmann escaped to Argentina where he lived under an assumed name. In May 1960, the Israeli Security Service, Mossad, kidnapped Eichmann in Argentina and smuggled him to Jerusalem to stand trial for wartime activities that included ‘causing the killing of millions of Jews’ and ‘crimes against humanity.’ The trial commenced on 11 April 1961 and Eichmann was convicted and hanged on 31 May 1962. Arendt’s Thesis Enormous controversy centered on what Arendt had written about the conduct of the trial, her depiction of Eichmann and her discussion of the role of the Jewish Councils. Eichmann, she claimed, was not a ‘monster’; instead, she suspected, he was a ‘clown.’ He had no ‘insane hatred of Jews’ and did not suffer from any kind of ‘fanatical anti-Semitism.’ She reported Eichmann’s claim that ‘he had never harbored any ill feelings against his victims’ and accepted it as fact. As far as Arendt was concerned, Eichmann simply had ‘an inability to think.’ She concluded: ‘The trouble with Eichmann was precisely that so many were like him, and that the many were neither perverted nor sadistic, that they were, and still are, terribly and | 141 | Democratiya 9 | Summer 2007 terrifyingly normal.’ In a postscript to later editions of the book she added that Eichmann simply ‘never realized what he was doing’ and that his criminal actions were due to ‘sheer thoughtlessness.’ Still more shocking to Arendt’s critics was her discussion of the Jewish Councils (Judenrat). These Councils were administrative bodies that the Nazis forced the Jews to establish in many occupied countries. The leaders had to follow Nazi orders under threat of immediate execution for disobedience. These orders included providing Jews for slave labour and organising the deportation of Jews to death camps. Although Arendt’s discussion of these Councils took up no more than a few pages, it provoked outrage. ‘To a Jew,’ asserted Arendt, ‘this role of the Jewish leaders in the destruction of their own people is undoubtedly the darkest chapter of the whole dark story.’ The next two sentences proved to be the most controversial: Wherever Jews lived, there were recognized Jewish leaders, and this leadership, almost without exception, cooperated in one way or another, for one reason or another, with the Nazis. The whole truth was that if the Jewish people had been really unorganized and leaderless, there would have been chaos and plenty of misery but the total number of victims would hardly have been between four and half and six million people. The Reaction Anson Rabinbach has argued, no doubt correctly, that the controversy surrounding Eichmann in Jerusalem ‘was certainly the most bitter public dispute among intellectuals and scholars concerning the Holocaust that has ever taken place.’ [5] The controversy was so intense that Irving Howe, editor of the democratic socialist magazine Dissent, described it as ‘violent.’ [6] Arendt’s friend Mary McCarthy wrote to her in September 1963 stating that the ferocity of the attacks was ‘assuming the proportions of a pogrom.’ [7] Almost twenty years after the book appeared, Howe was able to write: ‘within the New York intellectual world Arendt’s book provoked divisions that would never be entirely healed.’ The Eichmann in Jerusalem controversy was ‘a civil war that broke out among New York intellectuals.’ [8] In Howe’s words, ‘What struck one in reading Eichmann in Jerusalem – struck like a blow – was the surging contempt with which she [Arendt] treated almost everyone | 142 | Ezra | arendt in New York and everything connected with the trial, the supreme assurance of the intellectual looking down upon those coarse Israelis.’ [9] Nevertheless, even those hostile to the book still took Eichmann in Jerusalem very seriously. As Marie Syrkin, the editor of Jewish Frontier explained, ‘The author’s considerable reputation and that of the magazine in which the articles were published unfortunately make it impossible to dismiss her account out-of-hand as a prime example of arrogance and intellectual irresponsibility.’ [10] One of the first counterblasts came in May 1963 when Justice Musmanno wrote a damning indictment in the New York Times Book Review. Given his role in the Eichmann trial, Justice Musmanno was well placed to comment, although he could hardly claim a position of Olympian impartiality. He concluded: ‘The disparity between what Miss Arendt states, and what the ascertained facts are, occurs with such disturbing frequency in her book that it can hardly be accepted as an authoritative historical work.’ [11] Arendt was invited to respond. She argued that Musmanno had distorted her words and attacked the New York Times Book Review for its ‘bizarre’ choice of reviewer. In his rejoinder, Musmanno pointed out that for 32 years he had been a judge and for 18 years had studied documentation on war crimes and crimes against humanity. ‘Miss Arendt,’ he insisted, ‘is not qualified to condemn so crassly the solemn judgment of the highest court of a nation.’ In his original review, Musmanno had raised the following accusation against Arendt: …she says that Eichmann was a Zionist and helped get Jews to Palestine. The facts, as set forth in the judgment handed down by the District Court of Jerusalem, are entirely to the contrary. As far back as November, 1937, after an espionage trip into the Middle East he reported that the plan for emigration of Jews to Palestine ‘was out of the question,’ it being ‘the policy of the Reich to avoid the creation of an independent Jewish State in Palestine.’ Arendt protested that she had not represented Eichmann as a Zionist. Musmanno quoted her again: ‘A certain von Mildenstein ... required him [Eichmann] to read Theodor Herzl’s Der Judenstaat, the famous Zionist classic, which converted Eichmann promptly and forever to Zionism.’ | 143 | Democratiya 9 | Summer 2007 Many of the critical reviewers saw Arendt’s depiction of Eichmann as a sympathetic one. Her energetic denials left them unmoved. Musmanno, for example, commented: ‘She says that Eichmann was misjudged, misrepresented, misunderstood, that he was victim of “hard luck.” Is that not sympathizing?’ Musmanno’s appraisal alone brought the New York Times Book Review over 100 letters, with the majority defending Arendt and attacking the review. Passions on both sides ran high. ‘Rarely,’ protested one correspondent, ‘can a reviewer have missed the point of a book as widely as Judge Musmanno did.’ Another thought that ‘Judge Musmanno’s rather childish piece clearly showed him to be so vastly inferior to Miss Arendt intellectually that no one of intelligence who read her remarkable book could take him seriously.’ In contrast, another letter stated that ‘Justice Musmanno’s review is a powerful rebuttal of an appallingly ugly and vicious work. Like Miss Arendt, I, too, was at the Jerusalem trial as an observer, but unlike her I came away sick and nauseated by the massive evidence.’ It was even suggested that ‘Miss Arendt’s book should give comfort to Eichmann’s family and his numerous accomplices and be well received in Germany.’ [12] Gideon Hausner, the Israeli prosecutor, was in New York giving a speech in May 1963 and went on the attack. According to the New York Daily News, Hausner flew to New York ‘to answer Hannah Arendt’s bizarre defense of Eichmann.’ [13] With specific reference to Arendt, he criticized those who had ‘twisted and distorted’ the facts in the Eichmann trial: ‘There are now some historians,’ he said, ‘fortunately few in number who for one reason or another cruelly and falsely blame the Jews and their leaders for “letting themselves” be slaughtered.’ These writers ‘blatantly distort facts and evidence.’ [14] Marie Syrkin, in The Jewish Frontier, accused Arendt of ‘polemical vulgarity.’ Syrkin ridiculed Arendt’s attack on Zionism: ‘Miss Arendt manages to imply that “Zionists” as such were a privileged group enjoying Nazi favor, instead of being the spearheads of whatever resistance to the extermination program was offered.’ Arendt’s accusation against the Jewish Councils was ‘scandalous.’ Although Arendt was ‘a very gifted writer’ who had ‘brilliant perceptions,’ ‘she takes extraordinary liberties with the record’ and ‘the overwhelming effect of her report is of a blinding animus and of a vast ignorance.’ [15] Syrkin wrote an even more vitriolic review in Dissent where she stated, ‘At the end of the script the only one who comes out better than when he came in is the defendant.’ She concluded ‘As history, Eichmann in Jerusalem is shockingly inaccurate and insofar as her thesis depends | 144 | Ezra | arendt in New York on the objective marshalling of evidence it is on shaky ground.... the book is a tract in which the author manipulates the material with a high-handed assurance.’ [16] Gertrude Ezorsky, a philosophy lecturer at Brooklyn College, launched an onslaught in the left-wing journal New Politics. Ezorsky questioned Arendt’s argument that psychiatric reports had certified Eichmann as normal: ‘The only certification which the court required was not that Eichmann was normal but that he was legally sane; otherwise they could not have tried him.’ Ezorsky quoted the results of a psychiatric test: the subject was ‘a man obsessed with a dangerous and insatiable urge to kill, arising out of a desire for power.’ She concluded, ‘Miss Arendt’s tale that Eichmann was without fanatical hatred of Jews seems initially implausible and turns out to be false.’ She ridiculed the claim by Arendt that Eichmann converted to Zionism forever, by quoting directly from a 1937 report signed by Eichmann on the need to ‘avoid the creation of an independent Jewish state in Palestine.’ Recalling the tricks the Nazis used to mislead the Jews about Auschwitz, she insisted that ‘Eichmann exemplified not the banality, but the cunning of evil.’ As far as Ezorsky was concerned, Eichmann was indeed a ‘monster,’ As for the Jewish leaders: I do not intend to commit an absurdity – parallel to Miss Arendt’s – and claim that all or even most of Jewish leaders in Eastern Europe were heroes. Yet her wholesale damning of Jewish leaders, as Quislings who cooperated in the Final Solution seems willfully ignorant. A glance at the history of modern East Europe Jewry could have warned her against such pronouncements. [17] But Arendt had her supporters. Against Ezorsky, Rutgers philosopher Robert Olson defended Arendt’s argument that Eichmann was not a sadist: ‘if Eichmann was a sadist, his sadism is so atypical that the person who takes it upon himself to prove it has accepted an almost impossible challenge.’ Olson accepted that Eichmann was an anti-Semite, but tried to prove Arendt’s claim that he was not a fanatical anti- Semite by defining a fanatic, in part, as someone ‘who acts at considerable risk to his own personal safety.’ Since there was no record of activities by Eichmann that would be a threat to his personal safety and hence he was not a fanatical anti-Semite. However, as Ezorsky hastened to point out, psychiatrists did regard Eichmann as a sadist; Olson, she wrote, was guilty of confusing fanaticism with idealism: ‘A fanatic is someone who tenaciously pursues a goal in blind disregard of its rational basis. While many fanatics have also been idealists, the concepts are not one and the same.’ [18] Another supporter was Stephen Spender, who stated in The New York | 145 | Democratiya 9 | Summer 2007 Review of Books that Eichmann in Jerusalem was ‘a brilliant and disturbing study of the character and the trial of Adolf Eichmann.’ [19] In Commonweal, Alice Mayhew thought that overall, Arendt’s study was ‘a genuine achievement.’ [20] The most prominent defender of Arendt’s work was camp survivor Bruno Bettelheim who wrote a positive review for The New Republic. The book’s impact was ‘powerful.’ Bettelheim agreed with Arendt that Eichmann was not an anti- Semitic monster and that the Holocaust was not the climax of the long history of Jew-hatred but, in his words, ‘merely one part of the master plan to create the thousand year totalitarian Reich.’ For Bettelheim – and apparently for Arendt – ‘the issue was not Eichmann, but totalitarianism.’ He shared Arendt’s opinion that the Holocaust ‘was not the last chapter in anti-Semitism but rather one of the first chapters in modern totalitarianism.’ On Jewish ‘cooperation’ he stated: No doubt the stories of the ghettos would have been different if most Jews and their leadership had not been more or less willing, out of anxiety, to cooperate with the Germans, if they had not opposed the small minority that called for resistance at all costs, including violent fighting back. No doubt many Jews would have been quicker to support the pitifully small fighting minority had they been told what lay in store for them by Jewish leaders who knew, or should and could have known, what fate awaited them. Many others might have tried to escape. Bettelheim concluded, ‘So while I would recommend this book for many reasons, the most important one is that our best protection against oppressive control and dehumanizing totalitarianism is still a personal understanding of events as they happen. To this end Hannah Arendt has furnished us with a richness of material.’ [21] This review prompted a letter from the writer Harry Golden, who alleged that both Bettelheim and Arendt were suffering from ‘an essentially Jewish phenomenon…self-hatred.’ [22] Musmanno wrote two sequels to his initial review. In the Summer 1963 issue of the Chicago Jewish Forum he poured scorn on Arendt’s claim that Eichmann did not hate Jews: ‘Perhaps she is right’ he stated, ‘because hatred is too mild a term.’ [23]. In the September 1963 issue of the National Jewish Monthly, Musmanno took the opportunity to answer Bettelheim’s accusation that he had misunderstood the trial. He pointed out that he was a Catholic, reiterated his conclusion that Eichmann in Jerusalem ‘contained as many factual errors as there are cinders in a fireplace’ | 146 | Ezra | arendt in New York and he wondered why it should be necessary to debate with people such as Arendt and Bettelheim who ‘wildly proclaim that the Jews should have resisted their murderers.’ He asked ‘What kind of mentality is it that will argue that these naked men, woman and children could in some way have overcome their killers bristling with firearms?’ The position of those that make such an argument was ‘so blatantly foolish that it could not possibly convince even the most unlettered person.’ [24] The Arendt-Scholem Letters In an exchange of letters subsequently published in Encounter, Hannah Arendt’s friend, the scholar Gershom Scholem, accused her of using a ‘heartless, frequently almost sneering and malicious tone.’ ‘Your account,’ he wrote, ‘ceases to be objective and acquires overtones of malice.’ Scholem explained why the Jewish critics at least were so upset by the book: ‘In the Jewish tradition there is a concept, hard to define and yet concrete enough, which we know as Ahabath Israel: “Love of the Jewish people....” In you, dear Hannah ... I find little trace of this.’ Since the subject was the destruction of a third of the Jewish people, ‘I have little sympathy with that tone – well expressed by the English word “flippancy” – which you employed so often in the course of your book. To the matter of which you speak it is unimaginably inappropriate.’ In the early edition of the book, subsequently changed, Arendt had referred to Leo Baeck ‘who in the eyes of both Jews and gentiles was the “Jewish Führer.”’ Scholem inveighed: ‘the use of the Nazi term in this context is sufficiently revealing. You do not speak, say, of the “Jewish leader,” which would have been both apt and free of the German word’s horrific connotation – you say precisely the thing that is most false and most insulting.’ Scholem went on to accuse Arendt of a ‘demagogic will-to- overstatement.’ He added ‘your description of Eichmann as a “convert to Zionism” could only come from somebody who had a profound dislike of everything to do with Zionism.... They amount to a mockery of Zionism; and I am forced to the conclusion that this was, indeed, your intention.’ Arendt’s reply to Scholem was unapologetic: You are quite right – I am not moved by any ‘love’ of this sort, and for two reasons: I have never in my life ‘loved’ any people or collective – neither the German people, nor the French, nor the American, nor the working class or anything of that sort. I indeed ‘love’ only my friends and the only kind of love | 147 | Democratiya 9 | Summer 2007 I know of and believe in is the love of persons. Secondly, this ‘love of the Jews’ would appear to me, since I am myself Jewish, as something rather suspect…. I do not ‘love’ the Jews, nor do I ‘believe’ in them; I merely belong to them as a matter of course, beyond dispute or argument. As well as defending herself on other points that Scholem had raised, Arendt elaborated on her view of the Jewish Councils: I said that there was no possibility of resistance, but there existed the possibility of doing nothing. And in order to do nothing, one did not need to be a saint, one needed only to say: I am just a simple Jew, and I have no desire to play any other role…. These people had still a certain, limited freedom of decision and of action. Just as the SS murderers also possessed, as we now know, a limited choice of alternatives. They could say: ‘I wish to be relieved of my murderous duties,’ and nothing happened to them. Since we are dealing in politics of men, and not with heroes or saints, it is this policy of ‘non-participation’… that is decisive if we begin to judge, not the system, but the individual, his choices and arguments. [25] It did not help. The publication of Eichmann in Jerusalem led to the end of Scholem’s friendship with Arendt. [26] The Debate in Partisan Review It was in Partisan Review that the most widely discussed debate by the ‘New York intellectuals’ took place. The literary critic Lionel Abel was invited to open up the discussion, and – as the editors conceded – his article was submitted as a ‘frank polemic.’ [27] Abel launched an outright and full frontal assault on the book. The review was so hostile that William Phillips, the editor, who was a friend of Arendt, sent her a copy with a covering letter that betrayed his embarrassment. [28] Abel accused Arendt of grave ‘faults of omission,’ of ‘frequent misstatements of fact’ and of making a ‘terrible charge against the Jewish leaders.’ On Arendt’s charge of cooperation, Abel declared: ‘One might as well accuse the people of Nagasaki and Hiroshima for having made their own deaths possible, since they lived in cities, and cities make the best targets.’ Whilst Arendt said that the Jews would have been better off with no Jewish Councils, Abel points out that in Soviet Russia there was no Jewish Council or leadership as ‘Jewish organizations of any kind had | 148 | Ezra | arendt in New York been destroyed by Stalin long before the war’; nevertheless, hundreds of thousands of Soviet Jews were murdered by the Einsatzgruppen. Arendt had not dealt with the killing of Jews in Russia; had she done so ‘she would have had to abandon her whole thesis that so much of the responsibility for the deaths of so many Jews rests finally with their own leadership.’ Arendt’s argument on Eichmann-as-Zionist was ‘completely unconvincing.’ Eichmann ‘comes off so much better in her book than do his victims.’ Arendt argued that when Eichmann said ‘I will jump into my grave laughing, because the fact that I have the death of five million Jews on my conscience gives me extraordinary satisfaction,’ he was suffering from the ‘common vice’ of ‘bragging.’ Abel thundered in response, ‘How many people in the history of the world have ever boasted of having killed five million people?’ The argument that Eichmann was a ‘moral monster’ was ‘valid and intelligent’; ‘How could the man not have been morally monstrous? And all the more a monster if he did not know he was one!’ Moreover, according to Abel, ‘Arendt’s judgment of Eichmann as an insignificant and commonplace official will be seen to be perverse and arbitrary.’ Abel compared arguments used in Eichmann in Jerusalem to her earlier book: Miss Arendt’s book On the Origins of Totalitarianism strongly stressed the impossibility of effective resistance to totalitarian rule.... Every position Miss Arendt maintained in her book on totalitarianism she would today have to retract and deny in order to seriously criticize the decisions made by the leaders of the Jewish Councils between 1941 and 1944. [29] In the following issue, Daniel Bell defended Arendt. He argued that for Arendt, Eichmann was a symbol of a new type of criminal – a criminal that obeys totalitarian laws. Bell accepted the evidence of Abel and other critics that Jews were killed irrespective of what recognized Jewish leaders did or did not do, but nonetheless asked, ‘is it a question of numbers?’ He argued that even if Jewish Councils did not cooperate in some places they did in others and ‘this cooperation was regarded by the Nazis as the cornerstone of their Jewish policy.’ [30] Mary McCarthy then also intervened in Arendt’s defence; but in doing so she opened up a religious divide. She thought Eichmann in Jerusalem was ‘splendid and extraordinary,’ but noted that with few exceptions favourable reviews had been produced by Gentiles and hostile ones by Jews. As far as McCarthy was concerned, the non-Jewish criticisms were ‘special cases’; for example she mentioned that Richard Crossman, the socialist intellectual and Labour party Member of Parliament, who wrote a hostile review for the British newspaper Observer, was a | 149 | Democratiya 9 | Summer 2007 regular visitor to Israel. (That Crossman’s visits were vacations was no obstacle to her argument.) McCarthy dismissed Abel and Syrkin as ‘propagandists.’ She also voiced her suspicions – all too familiar in the context of today’s debates about the demonisation of Israel – of a coordinated effort to conflate criticism with anti- Semitism: [Arendt’s antagonists] in private ‘expose’ her as an anti-Semite, and a newspaper story speaks of the wife of an Israeli official who kept calling her ‘Hannah Eichmann’ – by a slip of the tongue of course. Abel’s essay was merely a visible manifestation of this clandestine ‘hate campaign.’ No doubt this Jewish conspiracy was all the more insidious because of McCarthy’s inability to prove its existence. McCarthy referred to Zionism as ‘the Jewish Final Solution’ and defended Arendt against the critics’ major charges. McCarthy felt that Eichmann in Jerusalem had been misinterpreted. Abel was wrong to interpret the conduct of Jewish leaders in terms of duress (‘a man [who] holds a gun at the head of another and forces him to kill a friend’). McCarthy was indignant: ‘Forces him to kill a friend? Nobody by possession of a weapon can force a man to kill anybody; that is his own decision ... he is tempting you to kill your friend that is all.’ [31] This objection was, of course, uninformed by analysis of the criminal defence of duress in any legal jurisdiction. But of course it did not end with McCarthy. The following issue of Partisan Review contained over thirty pages of arguments, counter arguments and accusations. Marie Syrkin accused McCarthy of ‘intellectual irresponsibility,’ ‘myopia,’ and (to be ‘charitable’) of ‘ignorance.’ For Harold Weisberg, McCarthy was ‘wholly lacking in charity and almost as much in logic.’ Weisberg preferred the ‘Zionist- Israeli’ view to Arendt’s universalist interpretation of the Eichmann case. Was it not incontrovertible that ‘If the Jews pinned their hopes on “humanity” more of them would be dead and many more would be victims of a variety of anti-Jewish persecutions?’ Others were more generous. The poet Robert Lowell called Arendt’s portrait of Eichmann ‘a masterpiece.’ Arendt’s only motive was ‘a heroic desire for truth.’ Still more effusive was Dwight MacDonald, a former editor of Partisan Review, who found Eichmann in Jerusalem to be a ‘masterpiece of historical journalism’ and also thought that McCarthy’s contribution ‘brilliantly (and sensibly) dealt with Mr. | 150 |