HHaammlliinnee UUnniivveerrssiittyy DDiiggiittaallCCoommmmoonnss@@HHaammlliinnee Departmental Honors Projects College of Liberal Arts Spring 2016 TThhee EEffffeecctt ooff BBiirrtthh OOrrddeerr oonn AAttttiittuuddeess TToowwaarrdd AAllttrruuiissmm Deanna R. Smith Hamline University Follow this and additional works at: https://digitalcommons.hamline.edu/dhp Part of the Family, Life Course, and Society Commons RReeccoommmmeennddeedd CCiittaattiioonn Smith, Deanna R., "The Effect of Birth Order on Attitudes Toward Altruism" (2016). Departmental Honors Projects. 50. https://digitalcommons.hamline.edu/dhp/50 This Honors Project is brought to you for free and open access by the College of Liberal Arts at DigitalCommons@Hamline. It has been accepted for inclusion in Departmental Honors Projects by an authorized administrator of DigitalCommons@Hamline. For more information, please contact [email protected]. Running Head: BIRTH ORDER AND ALTRUISM The Effect of Birth Order on Attitudes Toward Altruism Deanna Smith An Honors Thesis Submitted for partial fulfillment of the requirements for graduation with honors in Sociology from Hamline University April 26, 2016 BIRTH ORDER AND ALTRUISM ABSTRACT Birth order is an extensively studied and contested concept in social science research. It has been used to examine topics such as personality (Curtis and Donald, 1993; Harris, 2000; Krueger et al., 2000), risktaking behavior (Krause et al., 2014; Piliavin and Charng, 1990), contextspecific learning (Harris, 2000), relationships (Eckstein et al., 2010; Harris, 2000; Kalliopuska, 1984; Manaster, 1977; Maner and Gaillot, 2007; Radley and Kennedy, 1995; Salmon, 2003; Winterich et al, 2009), narcissism (Curtis and Donald, 1993), and prosociality (Kalliopuska, 1984; Krueger et al., 2000; Kurzban et al. 2015; Maner and Gaillot, 2007; Piliavin and Charng, 1990; Radley and Kennedy, 1995; Salmon, 2003; Simmons, 1991; Warneken and Tomasello, 2009; Winterich et al, 2009). While there has been a considerable amount of research done on birth order, there has been little to no research that has examined the influence of birth order on altruistic attitudes. Previous research on prosocial behavior has shown that middle borns are likely to express less positive attitudes toward family than first borns or last borns (Salmon, 2003), and oldest children are more likely to express helping behavior toward kin than nonkin (Maner and Gailliot, 2007). The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of birth order on a person’s attitudes towards altruism. Analyses evaluated different factors in altruistic attitudes, such as risk taking, family size, gender, and rewards. Results indicated that birth order does have an effect on certain attitude measures of altruism and as well as effects for race and gender. 1 BIRTH ORDER AND ALTRUISM INTRODUCTION Humans have long possessed a want and need to help others through prosocial and altruistic acts, whether that be loaning money to a friend, helping a neighbor rescue their cat from a tree, donating to a homeless shelter, or helping a younger sibling with their homework. In these situations, who is the most likely to help? Little is known about how one’s birth order might shape their altruistic actions and attitudes. While many scholars differ in their definition, altruism is defined here as “behavior that risks our resources, including our own physical safety, to benefit others” (Olson and Hergenhahn, 2011, p. 379). Essentially, it is a voluntary act that one performs in order to increase another’s welfare with no external reward or benefit to the self (Simmons, 1991). Altruism is a topic that has been deeply examined by social scientists in multiple disciplines, including evolutionary psychology, sociobiology, social psychology, and sociology. Simmons, a sociologist, argues from a structural functionalist perspective and says that altruism is one process that helps glue society together and without it society would not function as it should (1991). Altruism is not intended to represent the individual and hold selfish motives, but it exists to help others and society as a whole. For some time, researchers have discussed the altruismegoism controversy which argues whether people are actually capable of altruistic behavior or whether all helping behavior is egoistic and selfserving (Simmons, 1991). Other researchers argue that there has been a “paradigm shift” in that prosocial behavior no longer has egoistic motives and that the altruistic impulse does truly exist (Lipscomb et al., 1982, 1985; Rushton, 1980). One of the main factors to altruistic behavior lies within the motivations to perform the helping acts and the type of relationship that exists between the provider and the 2 BIRTH ORDER AND ALTRUISM recipient of the help, whether they are a member of the helpers ingroup or outgroup (Maner and Gailliot, 2007; Radley and Kennedy, 1995; Winterich et al., 2009). So what type of people are likely to act altruistically? There has been considerable data gathered concerning birth order research, however, conflicting conclusions have resulted in the need to further investigate the effects of birth order. Alfred Adler was one of the first theorists to incorporate birth order into his work (Eckstein et al., 2010; Krause et al, 2014; Curtis and Cowell, 1993; Manaster, 1977). Adler found that parents and members of society can impose beliefs about birthorder characterics onto children, which can affect expectations, rearing practices, and ultimately a child’s outcomes in life (Eckstein et al., 2010). Adler also argues that before we can judge a person, we must understand the situation in which they grew up and the position they hold in terms of their family structure (Manaster, 1977). There are many factors that may influence a person’s birth order position, such as gender, death or impairment of a sibling, family size and density, blended families, large age gap between siblings, differences in familial and cultural norms, and sex of siblings (Eckstein et al., 2010; Manaster, 1977). Eckstein et al. created a representative study of ordinal and psychological birth order research which resulted in overwhelming support in general differences in birth order characteristics, such as first born children having the highest academic/intellectual success, being high achievers and highly motivated, and being the most likely to be the leader. Middle children had characteristics of being social, having success in team sports, having feelings of not belonging, and have the fewest “acting out” problems. Youngest children are the most rebellious, most empathic, and have the highest amount of social interest/agreeableness. Only children, similar to oldest children, have characteristics of achievements/intelligence, need for 3 BIRTH ORDER AND ALTRUISM achievement, and were most likely to be selfish (2010). Although some researchers maintain that family size and altruistic behavior are unrelated, others state that growing up in a large family promotes generosity (Kalliopuska, 1984). Little research up to this point has looked into how birth order plays a role in altruistic attitudes and behavior. Some research has examined how a person’s birth order determines who they are likely to display prosocial behavior toward, whether that be kin or nonkin (Salmon, 2003). This research study looked at the effect of birth order on altruistic attitudes. The value of birth order and altruism research is to investigate who is more likely and less likely to have positive feelings toward prosocial behavior dependent on their ordinal position. This work would further add to previous research done on empathy and birth order (Kalliopuska, 1984) as well as the relationship between risk taking tendencies and altruistic attitudes. Previous research might suggest that birth order is in fact associated with the level of altruistic behavior a person displays. Therefore, I performed this study to confirm the previous research that says growing up in a large family encourages generosity and prosocial behavior (Sawyer, 1966). I am also expanding upon the research to investigate if youngest children are more likely to take a risk and report altruistic attitudes (Eckstein et al.,2010; Krause et al., 2014). LITERATURE REVIEW Birth order has been a topic of discussion for social scientists for a long time. Psychologist Alfred Adler was one of the first theorists to incorporate birth order in his work in 1918 (Eckstein et al., 2010; Manaster, 1977). He believed that “before we can judge a human being we must know the situation in which he grew up. An important moment is the position 4 BIRTH ORDER AND ALTRUISM which a child occupied in his family constellation” (Adler, 1927, p. 149). Adler contended that each child is treated differently within a family depending on their birth order. This differential treatment is what influences the child’s worldview and their life goals and lifestyle (Olson and Hergenhahn, 2011). Adler also found that parents and members of society can impose beliefs about birthorder characterics onto children, which can affect expectations, rearing practices, and ultimately a child’s outcomes in life (1956c). Adler concentrated much of his birth order research in the psychology field and focused on the first born, second born, youngest, and the only child (Olson and Hergenhahn, 2011). The first born is the focus of attention by the parents until the next child is born. The child then becomes less of a focus as the new child receives the focus of the parents and the first born child must now fight for the attention they lost (Olson and Hergenhahn, 2011). The second born child then has to be extremely ambitious because they are trying to catch up, or pass, their older sibling (Olson and Hergenhahn, 2011). Of all the birth orders, Adler saw the second borns as being the most fortunate because, according to Adler, the second born child behaves as if in a race and if someone were a step or two ahead, they must rush to get ahead again (1956c). Not only do second borns have the opportunity to observe and profit from mistakes the first born children make, but they also can learn compassion for others because of their secondplace slot (Eckstein et al., 2010). Next, Adler saw the youngest child as being in the secondworst position after the first born child (Olson and Hergenhahn, 2011). He attributed this to how the family treats and spoils the youngest children, and although youngest children are ambitious, they are also lazy and spoiled (1958). Lastly, the only child is like the first born child who is never dethroned by a sibling (Olson and Hergenhahn, 2011). Adler saw only children as being very 5 BIRTH ORDER AND ALTRUISM sweet and affectionate, however, the shock comes later in life (e.g., in school) when the only child learns that they can not remain the center of attention (Olson and Hergenhahn, 2011). To address the various theories in birthorder research, Watts and Engels (1995) hypothesize that Adlerians (those who follow Adler’s beliefs) typically consider psychological birth order, whereas nonAdlerians tend to focus on ordinal birth position. Psychological birth order is the way a person sees or perceives their position in their family, while ordinal position is the numerical place of an individual in the order of births in their family (Manaster, 1977; Eckstein et al., 2010). Adler stressed the importance of considering psychological birth order over ordinal birth order by stating, “It is not, of course, the child’s number in the order of successive births which influences his character, but the situation into which he is born and the way in which he interprets it,” (Eckstein et al., 2010). Birth order terms, such as only, oldest, second born, and youngest, are different terms used by Adlerians and nonAdlerians alike. Birth order research is multidisciplinary and while much of the research has been done through the psychological lenses, other social scientists, such as sociologists, have examined birth order from other perspectives. For example, unlike psychologists who focus on the individual and their birth order position, sociologists focus on groups of people who hold certain birth order positions and look for common trends amongst them. Social scientists also have used both psychological and ordinal birthorder in their research in various ways. In his book Born to Rebel, Sulloway (1996) approaches birth order through an evolutionary psychology perspective and argues that functional birth order, similar to Adler’s psychological birth order, has preeminence over biological, or ordinal, birth order (1996). Sulloway looked at birthorder personality factors and found that later born children are generally more adventurous, altruistic, 6 BIRTH ORDER AND ALTRUISM cooperative, easy going, empathic, open to experience and risktaking, and sociable, which are all findings that line up closely with Adler’s (1996). Herrera et al. took a different approach and focused on the effects of individuals’ perceptions of birthorder characteristics and their psychological origins and found that people unconsciously make personal decisions based on their beliefs about birthorder characteristics (2003). While some researchers argue that family size and altruistic behavior are unrelated, others insist that growing up in a large family promotes generosity (Sawyer, 1966). Researchers have found that children from small families have more selfassurance and initiative and are more willing to act spontaneously and help others who are in emergencies (Staub, 1971). Kalliopuska examined the relationship between empathy and birth order by conducting home interviews with one hundred and ninetyfour students, ages nine to twelve years (1984). Empathy differs from altruism in that it is defined as "the capacity to (a) be affected by, and share, the emotional state of another, (b) assess the reasons for the other's state, and (c) identify with the other, adopting his or her perspective" (De Waal, 2008, p. 281). To be clear, empathy is the thoughts and feelings one shares with an individual in a troubled state, while altruism is the act performed for the individual due to their troubled state. According to Kalliopuska’s results, there were no significant results, however, her findings were somewhat different from previous studies in that middle born children are prone to empathize more than first borns and later borns are less empathic than first and middle borns (1984). In large families, the youngest children generally receive less parental attention than the oldest siblings because parents often transfer responsibility for caretaking onto the older siblings (Kalliopuska, 1984). While this may be good in teaching empathy and responsibility to older children, Kalliopuska argues that parents in large 7 BIRTH ORDER AND ALTRUISM families may need to work harder to devote more special time to younger children (Kalliopuska, 1984). Salmon took a different approach and examines the impact of birth order on relationships and prosocial attitudes depending on if the relationship was with family or non family (friends and sexual partners) (2003). Salmon and Daly (1998) find that middle borns declare themselves to be less close to parents (and more so to friends and siblings) than first borns or last borns and less likely to be actively interested in their family histories or to make kin ties a part of their selfidentity (2003). In her study, Salmon explores if middle borns are less affiliated with family and if they are instead specializing in nonkin reciprocal relationships (2003). She asked two hundred and fortyfive undergraduate students to complete a questionnaire on family and social relationships and found that middle borns do in fact express less positive attitudes toward family than first borns or last borns (Salmon, 2003). Birth order can sometimes be difficult to analyze because of the various factors and environmental influences that come into play. For example, a later born child is sometimes in the situation of the oldest child due to the number of years that separate the children from each other. Adler believed that birth order position in not identical to ordinal position because of these factors and influences, and therefore, saw problems in the use of birth order in assessments, therapy, and research that are posed by variations in family size, birth spacing, and sex of siblings (Adler, 1932; Manaster, 1977). Many factors may influence a person’s birth order position, such as gender, death or impairment of a sibling, blended families, family size, large age gap between siblings, and differences in familial and cultural norms. (Conley, 2013; Eckstein 8
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