1 The Edible Woman – Searching for the Lost Appetite Julia Pei-Hsuan Hsieh 1. Introduction 2. The Loss of Power – The Female Body as a Useful Body and an Intelligible Body 3. Protest or Retreat? – The Female Body Takes Over? 1. Introduction “Whatever I do I must keep my head. I know it is easier for me to lose my way forever here, than in other landscapes” -- Margaret Atwood, “Journey to the Interior” Although Atwood does not admit being a feminist, her novels show her concern with women and certain contemporary problems which are strongly related to female bodies, such as hysteria and anorexia. In her first published novel, The Edible Woman, for instance, Atwood reveals her concern with feminist issues and women’s problems, such as women’s limited work opportunities, their expected goals of marriage and pregnancy, as well as the other social stereotypes and their reactions. As many critics suspected, Marian MacAlpin is the shadow of young Atwood when she just graduated and got into a research company. When Karen Stein introduces the background of Atwood’s writing The Edible Woman, she regards Marian as Atwood’s protagonist “who resists marriage as she struggles to find her place in society” (43). Moreover, to illustrate that Marian is in some way Atwood’s advocate character, Stein refers to Valerie Miner’s interview of Atwood that mentioned Atwood’s fear of marriage when she was still young and with James Polk, Atwood’s first husband. Yet, Marian’s confusion and dilemmas in life are not simply Atwood’s observation of herself but those of all women. When Atwood wrote The Edible Woman, the “the new ‘single girl’ phenomenon” began to get popular in society. In the fifties, women were expected to perform a role of sexy housewife and remained in the domestic circle. Marriage, for instance, is one thing that has been so big an issue that women of Atwood’s time and perhaps even nowadays have to face. There was, after the Second World War, a call for women to go home when men returned from the battlefields and expected to return to a life of “normality.” In the sixties, however, new definitions of 2 ‘femaleness’ and of female sexuality began to form in Canada in response to the Civil Rights Movement and feminist movement in the States. Canadian women in the sixties began to think more of themselves and organize groups, forming sisterhood to help each other. With the popularity of Betty Friedan’s The Feminine Mystique, Canadian women, like their American counterparts, became more and more self-conscious, and hence learned the latent power in their bodies gradually. In the light of the Ziegeist of her time, in response, Atwood draws her readers’ attention to certain women’s situations in the patriarchal society. As Atwood mentioned in an interview in 1973, “what [women] were supposed to do was pay attention to the diapers and the washing of dishes” (209). Through Marian the fictional character, Atwood accounts for the fact that women are confined still to domestic space by their family and social roles, and certainly in their bodies. And from my perspective, all of these issues are centered on woman’s body, how it is conceptualized and used. These issues of woman’s body and social roles get embodied in the life of the protagonist of The Edible Woman. Marian’s experience and observation of different women’s roles at her work place, the multi-layers of the structure of her company, and her dilemma of whether or not she is going to get married and what could come out of this marriage, could only be the tip of the iceberg of women’s problems. And through Marian’s physical and mental responses to the changes in her life and her society, I think Atwood illustrates how the female body can be a possible site for a woman to rediscover herself. Yet, how does Marian’s self-contradictory physical and mental responses help assert herself? Why does Marian appear to be indecisive and passive toward patriarchal control and submissive toward what society teaches her to be; that is, to be an attractive candidate for the marriage market? In the process of restoring her lost appetite and finding a way to survive, why do the consecutive flooding images of the female body become closely connected with those of food? And finally, how do these images function in her life and thus help her find her way to survival? Marian’s responses to patriarchal demands, I think, are in a zigzag fashion and thus frequently self-contradictory. Even after her overcoming the anorexic symptoms, Atwood still makes Marian’s self-assertion a puzzle, an ambiguous reaction which can both mean a new beginning and a compromise with patriarchal society. The struggle between submissiveness and self-assertion happens when Marian’s first physical response occurs. A symptom may be an indication to a certain kind of mal-function of the body or mind, against which some physical and/or mental response may convey repulsion. What trigger Marian’s abnormal behaviors are actually her fears of being abnormal and being consumed. The fear of being abnormal reflects her conventional and conservative attitude when facing society, whereas the fear of being consumed like food she eats makes her reject food and feel repulsive at 3 men’s eating and hunting. Since she is engaged with Peter, Marian finds that her body does something that is not quite herself, and this unusual behavior become more and more frequent. Another incident indicating her confusion happens at the dinner table: she suddenly feels the tears on her face, and next, she collapses in the powder room; after the dinner, all of a sudden she starts to run, making Peter chase her for quite long a distance; then she hides herself under the bed so that no one in the house could find her. It is not until she is alone with herself under the bed that she realizes that something in her has challenged her to make her own decision of what she is going to do next. Her strange physical reactions along with the fear of being consumed awake her to face her unusual transformation phase, or the crisis of losing her self-identity. To be short, Marian acknowledges that something in her is rebelling against who she used to be and what she does to meet social inspection and expectation. With her gradual loss of appetite, Marian realizes that her body has been separated from herself, and she might lose her subjectivity little by little. The fear of being abnormal makes her alert to her status in society while at the same time, the fear of being “consumed,” that is, being minimalized in society, makes her identify with food and prey. These symptoms and worries arouse her awareness of a crisis in which she is threatened by the dominant suffocating masculinity to which she surrenders her power, as well as by the social construction of femininity that turns her to a desirable and appealing object of consumption. In this chapter, therefore, I will argue that The Edible Woman shows how a woman’s body is always a site of constant struggle between social control and self-assertion. I will first lay out the theoretical framework of social control of woman’s body by discussing Foucault and Bourdieu’s concepts of the body and the feminists’ theories on femininity and anorexia. After examining how social expectation stifles women and lick women into shapes with various destined roles women are to fulfill, I intend to continue to discuss Marian’s fear of being abnormal and being different from other women of her time, and move on to inspect the causes that make her feel intimidated. Then I will turn to discuss the effects of her responses to the threatening power, which, as I have pointed out, pushes her to more and more self – awareness despite her frequent attempts to return to the so-called normality. Finally, I will scrutinize the ending, and discuss how Marian finds the way out of the crisis, even if it is just a temporary way out by looking into her intriguing restoration of appetite. 2. The Loss of Power – The Female Body as a Useful Body and an Intelligible Body 4 As a career woman, Marian is not much different from the women of her time who received college education but were expected to see marriage and childbearing as their goals in life. At Marian’s time, very possibly the post war period, women were used to working and getting hold of money. It was a time when most women were given chances of serving mostly in domestic labour works, sales and secretary, and the age of marriage has become to rise slowly . Marian is one of the new “single girls” at work, but is expected to be married and form a family of her own. She has a mediocre job as a market researcher and desires no fancy life but a plain role of a normal woman who is suitable for marriage. In other words, she asks herself to be capable to act according to her society in which normal women end up with family and marriage life whereas unmarried women are looked down upon and are suspected as “abnormal” in certain ways. As a matter of fact, society controls women like Marian and their bodies by expecting them to be both “intelligible” and “useful.” As is discussed in the introduction, body, according to Foucault is a site through which social discourses not only control, discipline, penetrate, empower individuals but also produce their subjectivities. Under the influences of social discourses, bodies, especially those of women’s, can function both as an image and a capital. As images, women need to fit into social conception of their figures, behavior, manners and appearance. As capital, on the other hand, a woman can use her body to gain some recognizable space in society. To begin with, Chris Shilling explains how Pierre Bourdieu’s theory of social reproduction may have indicated how one’s body functions in the society. According to Bourdieu, the body bears a symbolic value (Shilling 89). That is, a body is not simply a biologically defined body any more. Instead, it contains meanings of different levels because of its being treated like capital (88). Originally, the capital is a physical one that a person contains as a natural-born asset. Then, moving from the physical level, it is possible for one to convert his or her physical capital in exchange for money, goods or services, etc. By doing this, the physical capital is changed into economic capital. What’s more, one could make good use of this economic capital to gain more education in various arenas or to employ his or her relationship with people in society. In that case, the physical capital is firstly brought to the level of an economic capital and then ‘upgraded’ into a cultural or social capital. Body, therefore, contains a symbolic value that can be taken as one’s capital and this capital could be dynamically changed and upgraded by a better shape or through training and decoration. Shilling is not the only one person that stresses Bourdieu’s concerns about the idea that human body is a made body. Feminists such as Moira Gatens and Susan Bordo 5 have learned from Bordieu and Foucault to discuss how the female body is constituted by society and the possible consequences. The idea that power controls one’s body can be seen in feminist theories such as Gatens’. When Gatens suggests that women’s bodies are very much confined to the roles of the wife, the mother and the domestic worker, she also indicates that the power these women possess is really very scarce. Gatens refers to her understanding of Foucaults’ discussion of the relationship between power and the body, “The human body is always a signified body and as such cannot be understood as a ‘neutral object’ upon which science may construct ‘true’ discourses” (230). Because of the idea that the human body is always a signified one, Gatens further concludes, “power is not [] reducible to what is imposed [] on naturally differentiated male and female bodies, but is also constitutive of those bodies, in so far as they are constituted as male and female” (230). In other words, the constituted power in male bodies is never the same power in female bodies; there are differences between the bodies of men and those of women not simply because of the relative “physical” differences, but more importantly, because of the different social constructions of gender powers as well. On the other hand, Susan Bordo, in her famous discussion of femininity and anorexia, starts with Bourdieu’s and Michel Foucault’s concepts on human body and society. She not merely illustrates how body functions as “a medium of culture,” but also makes a connection between Bourdieu and Foucault because they both consider the body as a text of culture as well as a practical, direct locus of social control. Applying their ideas to the case of femininity and the body, Bordo especially thinks that female body’s forces and energies are habituated to external regulation, subjection, transformation, and “improvement,” in terms of physical changes and conceptual changes. These external controls and disciplines have long carved into women’s mind and made women accustomed to the idea that their bodies should function in two ways; that is, as I explains in the introduction as the intelligible body and the useful body. The former includes our scientific, philosophic, aesthetic representations of the body whereas the latter means the training and shaping our bodies into useful ones by the power of “the useful body.” Inferring from the concepts of the intelligible body and the useful body, Bordo believes that “the contradictory and mystifying relations between image and practice” may be the causes of female eating and body disorders. Namely, the contradictory standards that women are expected to fulfill, such as the quality of being as capable and reasonable as men and being as tender, gentle, amiable, adorable and supportive as women at the same time, create a double bind for women. And Bordo refers that this double bind for women somehow renders women to a more difficult and complicated situation which further mystifies the collaboration of the image and practice, in Foucault’s terms: “the useful body” and “the intelligible body.” 6 To apply Bordo’s theory to and if it is as Bordo supposes, Marian’s eating disorder and queer behavior may have, in a way, explained her bewilderment at not knowing how to coordinate and strike a balance between her intelligible body and her useful body. Whereas the female body is to be expected to function as an intelligible and useful one of femininity, the male body is also required to be masculine. In the novel, Marian is very much concerned with her image and women’s images in general; in addition, she also notices how the men in her life are different in their ways of being and being seen. Marian is aware of the feminine images around her and how those images somehow result from the manipulations of patriarchal society. She has to mind her countenance and make her appearance attractive enough to be a preference in the marriage market. In a way, Marian’s body is a “docile body,” and this could be exemplified by how her body is manipulated by the hairdresser, Ainsley and Peter. It is quite obvious that Marian is conservative in clothing, for Ainsley thinks that Marian “choose[s] clothes as though they’re a camouflage or a protective colouration” (6). Compared with Marian, Ainsley and the office virgins in Marian’s company are more apt to be Barbies that are “artificial blondes,” who are apt to dress in “neon pink” with their hair “elegantly coiffured” (16). Conservative as Marian is, she cannot help but yield to social views of fashion-trend and the definition of a beauty. In view of the images of a contemporary beauty, Marian has to endure something being put on her. She has to be “operated upon” through rituals when she is in the beauty salon, getting ready for the engagement party. Due to others’ views, she has to be dressed like a Barbie doll by the beauticians and Ainsley. And then, there is Peter who is totally satisfied with her look with heavy makeup and alluring evening gown. He assures Marian his love by saying, “I love you especially in that red dress” (263), with his particular humouring attitude. The social fashion trend teaches Marian and executes on her the definition of beauty, which Marian disagrees with only when she sides with Duncan, a social misfit. And yet, to conform to standardize beauty is part of the price that Marian has to pay, for being normal in the eyes of her society. As a “useful body,” Marian is aware of the hierarchical structure of her company, where she is situated in the bottom of the middle part. At work, she serves for the companies to ‘monitor’ their target consumers, who are mostly housewives. That is, her job reminds her from time to time of the fact that women, at work as well as at home, are controlled, conditioned and expected to be productive. In the paragraphs where she describes what she works on and who she works with, she expresses the reluctance and helplessness from the dead-end stifling job. The obligatory Pension Plan of Seymour Survey could be a solid example to prove the concealment of her dissatisfaction. When Mrs. Grot brought the documents for Marian to sign, Marian reflects that her submission to signing on the document of the Pension Plan actually is 7 something that she has long learned from the school days. It wasn’t only the feeling of being subject to rules I had no interest in and no part in making: you get adjusted to that at school. It was a kind of superstitious panic about the fact that I had actually signed my name, had put my signature to a magic document which seemed to bind me to a future so far ahead I couldn’t think about it. Somewhere in front of me a self was waiting, pre-formed, a self who had worked during innumerable years for Seymour Surveys and was now receiving her reward. (15) She imagines her signature “going into a file and the file going into a cabinet and the cabinet being shut away in a vault somewhere and locked” (15), and that echoes the image of the structure of Seymour Survey, which is layered by fixed power structure: “the men upstairs” on the top, female staff in the middle, and machines and the machine operatives down on the bottom. Marian, as a junior staff in the company, does nothing more than what she is demanded to do. She seldom has the freedom to choose so that she feels being stuck in her work. To sum up, she learns to be accustomed to being manipulated in her work even though she has a different voice in her head, and she is somehow used to concealing what she really thinks. What is Marian Afraid of? – Constructions of Femininity and Masculinity According to Ann Parsons, Marian has two kinds of fears: fear of the loss of freedom and fear of the loss of identity. In Parson’s viewpoint, marriage, as well as the pension plan, “make [Marian] fit into a performed role” (100), but this seeming life-guaranteed matrimony “also closes her into one of the performed identities she dreads” (101). In my view, Marian is afraid of losing her identity in face of constructing her body as feminine as well as the pressure she faces from Peter’s masculinity. While masculinity threatens Marian and upsets her in a way, femininity also casts a chill over her. As she has realized, almost everyone around her is with the quality of either femininity or masculinity, even Marian herself is taught to get accustomed to social norms about genders. But what is unexpected to her is how much femininity could have de-powered a woman whereas masculinity empowers men. From the very beginning, there is a strong comparison between Marian and the three office virgins and Ainsley, her roommate: the former is quite plain and never wears heavy makeup or neo-colored dresses, but as a contrary, the latter two always appear to be attractive with distinct hairdos, heavy-makeup, and tend to be careful about their looks. Surrounded by feminine colleagues in an almost all women working environment, Marian is surprised at her obligation of being a woman, characterized by the conventional gender stereotype: to be obedient, to be cooperative, to be capable to “catch” a husband, to be reliable and stable in work, and perhaps, to be capable of being a mother. Just as Duncan once reminds her, “every woman loves an invalid. I 8 bring out the Florence Nightingale in them” (105), Marian realizes what a woman is expected to be, and though she does not intend to participate in mothering, nursing, or being a wife, her drastic physical response warns her of the possible tasks she is going to face after getting married to someone macho like Peter. Speaking of the image of women, in the office Christmas party, Marian reveals her observation on women, on food which are made by women, on how women are presented to fit into society and how women’s bodies resemble the food that she eats every day. Watching women’s bodies from a distance of her colleagues, Marian falls into a dilemmatic situation: she feels that she is not one of them and yet, she is also one of them. She is not one of them because she does not decorate herself to celebrate or standout her femininity; moreover, she does not feel safe or oriented in her work; also, she is bothered when she is asked to do works of bits and pieces and to sign anything that she does not agree with. As a result, there in the party, she finds herself unable to fit in. She is different from the virgins not only because she is not like them in terms of exterior appearance, but she is a wife-to-be. She feels, however, herself is one of the female colleagues in some ways. No matter how she dislikes the work, she accepts what she is expected to do, like everyone else. Although she sees her body different from other women’s bodies, Marian realizes her destiny of being the same as the women she observes: At some time she would be – or no, already she was like that too; she was one of them, her body the same, identical, merged with that other flesh that choked the air in the flowered room with its sweet organic scent; she felt suffocated by this thick Sargasso-sea of femininity. She drew a deep breath, clenching her body and her mind back into her self like some tactile sea-creature withdrawing its tentacles; she wanted something solid, clear: a man; she wanted Peter in the room so that she could put her hand out and hold on to him to keep from being sucked down. (181) The overstressed feminine characteristics, which she has observed in every way from her female colleagues, make her stifling and panic. Likewise, Clara’s confinement in family makes Marian anxious about the feminine destiny of her time – motherhood and pregnancy. With the sight of Clara’s pregnancy, Marian reveals her fear of being like Clara. She regards Clara as “everyone’s ideal of translucent perfume-advertisement femininity” (33) and she perceives Clara’s transformation after she steps into matrimony: The babies had been unplanned: Clara greeted her first pregnancy with astonishment that such a thing could happen to her, and her second with dismay; now, during her third, she had subsided into a grim but inert fatalism. Her metaphors for her children included barnacles encrusting a ship and limpets clinging to a rock. (33) Clara’s unplanned pregnancy and motherhood have driven her desperate and 9 impatient. When Marian visits her in the hospital, Clara refers to her newly-born as “Christmas present” and she wishes she could just “hatch them out of eggs.” Clara’s casual and insensitive attitude certainly has effected Marian and made her see pregnancy with fright although Clara talks “as if she was recommending a handy trick for making fluffier piecrust or a new detergent” (139). These images of pregnancy connected with food brought Marian discomfort, for she is sure that she will face the same destiny sooner or later because “Peter had begun to make remarks with paternal undertones” (139). Clara’s casual attitude towards her own experiences of parenting and consecutive pregnancies, and Peter’s remarks with a paternal voice make Marian dread for being married and pregnant. Her anorexic reaction goes from bad to worst when she faces the food she eats and Peter’s mentioning about children altogether. In the restaurant dinning with Peter, Marian gets to be more and more aware of her interaction with Peter and the secret repulsive reaction of her body: Peter talked theoretically, about children as a category, carefully avoiding any application. But she knew perfectly well that it was their own future they were really discussing: that was why it was so important. Peter thought that all children ought to be punished for breaches of discipline; even physically. [] Marian was afraid of warping their emotions. (159) Marian is aware of her letting Peter make decisions on almost everything and talk as if he has patronized her, but she does nothing because “she never know[s] what she want[s] to have” whereas Peter appears to be determined all the time. When facing Peter’s disagreement, Marian stays low-keyed and realizes that Peter does not take her seriously and blames her mildly for her innocence and ignorance, because she has “led a sheltered life” (159). She foresees her future marriage life as a woman giving birth to children who may be well-disciplined under the instruction of the father, not the mother. In other words, Marian is more and more aware that before long, it is a sure thing that she loses her autonomy in life. For Marian, therefore, being a mother is as powerless as marrying Peter. In the novel, Atwood’s character Clara serves as an exaggeration of women burdened with babies. With her empathetic and pitiful attitude toward Clara, who is caught up with consecutive pregnancy, Marian brings out her fear of being pregnant, being a mother, and being with children. Her imagination of Clara’s pregnant body is collided with images like “boa-constrictor that has swallowed a watermelon” (28). Likewise, she pays special attention when Clara names her children with terms like “bastard,” “demon,” “goddemned fire-hydrant,” “bugger” or “leech.” Also, altogether Clara and her children remind Marian of the food she eats: “She lay back in her chair and closed her eyes, looking like a strange vegetable growth, a bulbous tuber that had sent out four thin white roots and a tiny pale-yellow flower” (28). Even the dress that Clara 10 wears attracts Marian’s attention because she links the pattern of the smock with the process of vegetation: “the stylized petals and tendrils moved with her breathing, as though they were coming alive.” Ironically, these vivid images of vegetation or food appear to be a strong comparison and contrast to Clara’s trapped situation: the food is a comparison to Clara because she is like a prepared food whose core is invaded, according to Joe Bates, her husband. On the other hand, the image of vegetation is a contrast to Clara’s motionless life, and a metaphor for her conceiving the babies. Somehow, Marian has been affected by the powerlessness and helplessness of Clara. Furthermore, she is much troubled with the scene of pregnancy and baby-raising, for she considers Clara’s body beyond control and is powerless. Although she defends for Clara when Ainsley acclaims that Clara has left everything to Joe and is being treated like a thing, Marian cannot help feeling pity for Clara and being afraid that she would be as powerless as Clara once she is pregnant after marrying Peter. Observant and imaginative as Marian is, she notices that Clara’s own body is “somehow beyond her, going its own way without reference to any directions of her” (34). And these scenes later have become such a nightmare that she cannot face them which make her reluctant to visit her best friend again; what’s more, the sight with Clara and her children, Clara’s her trapped and powerless life, adding up to Mairan’s imagination of the connection of objects, animals and food that she eats everyday, further brings forth her plight and accelerate her total rejection to food. As to the images of men, although Marian is concerned with conforming to proper images of women in society, she is keenly aware of and resistant to the differences between men and women, and the power in them. She acknowledges that women are powerless, whereas men remain the powerful. Nevertheless, not all women or men are equally powerless or empowered. For women, pregnancy and the quality of femininity make women powerless. On the contrary, men is empowered especially when they are proved masculine and with men-like characteristics, such as being rough and strong at appearance, being reasonable and less emotional, appealing to manly sports or exciting competitive activities. Somewhere in between the images of femininity and masculinity, character like Duncan is treated like a child with even less power. From time to time, Marian feels uneasy and suffocated. She can hardly stand the violent talks of men about hunting, nor is she able to bear the overwhelming femininity that makes her associate nauseatingly with food. The social demands for Marian’s body to be both “useful” and “intelligible,” her physical reactions demonstrate a rebellion against the norms of a useful and intelligible body in one. This contradiction converges in the issue of marriage in her life, which may lead her to both a way out of her sense of oppression from her workplace and apartment, and further constraint her in the new family with Peter. In