... THE ECOLOGY OF INDONESIA SER-IES VO.LUM E I ' .. , ,. . ' ' The _Ecology.9 f Sumatra . ') / TONY WHITTEN J. SENGLI DAiMANJK ,.. jAZANUL ~NWA,R NAZARUDDIN HJSYAM ,.. THE ECOLOGY OF SUMATRA THE ECOLOGY OF INDONESIA SERIES VoLUME I THE ECOLOGY OF INDONESIA SERIES Volume I: The Ecology of Sumatra Other titles in the series Volume II: The Ecology ofj ava and Bali Volume III: The Ecology of Kalimantan Volume IV: The Ecology of Sulawesi Volume V: The Ecology ofNusa Tenggara and Maluku Volume VI: The Ecology oflrianjaya Volume VII: The Ecology of the Indonesian Seas-Part 1 Volume VIII: The Ecology of the Indonesian Seas-Part 2 Published by Periplus Editions (HK) Ltd. First Peri plus edition, 2000 ©Tony Whitten, 1997 ISBN 962-593-074-4 Publisher: Eric Oey Typesetting and graphics: JWD Communications Ltd. Copyediting: Sean Johannesen Distributors: Narth America Tuttle Publishing Distribution Center Airport Industrial Park 364 Innovation Drive North Clarendon, VT 05759-9436 Tel: (802) 773 8930 Fax: (802) 526 277S japan Tuttle Publishing RK Building 2nd Floor 2-1~10 Shimo-Meguro, Meguro-Ku Tokyo 153-0064 Tel: (03) 5437-0171 Fax: (03) 5437-0755 Asia Pacific Berkeley Books Pte. Ltd. 5 Little Road #08-01 Singapore 536983 Tel: (65) 280-3320 Fax: (65) 280-6290 Indonesia PT Java Books Indonesia Jl. Kelapa Gading Kirana Blok A14 No.17 Jakarta 14240 Tel: (021) 451 5351 Fax: (021) 453 4987 Printed in Singapore The Ecology of Sumatra TONY WHITTEN J. SENGLI DAMANIK jANZANUL ANWAR NAZARUDDIN HISYAM PERIPLUS Table of Contents Acknowledgements xi mangrove vegetation to fisheries 77 The vegetation 79 Foreword xiii Tree species 79 Preface xv Zonation 81 Plant succession 84 Reflections on Sumatra: 1983-1998 Geomorphological change 85 XVll Physiological response to soil- water salinity 85 Part A Differential dispersal of Introduction 1 propagules 86 Chapter 1 Background 3 Biomass and productivity 86 Geomorphological and geological Tannins 88 history 3 The coastline of eastern Sumatra Soils 9 and the role of mangroves in land Climates 12 extension 88 Palaeoclimate 12 Fauna 91 Present climate 14 The challenges of living in Vegetation 17 mangroves 91 Palaeovegetation 17 Zonation and characteristics of the Present vegetation 19 aquatic fauna 92 Fauna 34 Biomass of aquatic fauna 109 Palaeofauna 34 Terrestrial fauna 109 Present fauna 36 Birds 111 Biogeography 41 Effects of the fauna on the Differences between vegetation 114 realms/zones 41 Chapter 3 Other coastal Differences within the ecosystems 115 Sunda Region 43 Introduction 115 Differences within Sumatra 46 Beach vegetation 115 Prehistory and history 53 Pes-caprae formation 115 Prehistory of man 53 Barringtonia formation 119 History - its effects on Productivity 122 natural ecosystems 59 Brackishwater forests 122 PartB Rocky shores 123 Natural Ecosystems 65 Coral reefs 124 Productivity 127 Chapter 2 Mangrove forests 69 Introduction 69 Chapter 4 Rivers and lakes 129 Important physical features 72 Introduction 129 Tides 72 Sumatran rivers and lakes 130 Salinity 74 Effects of the catchment area on Temperature 74 rivers and lakes 132 Surface currents 74 Water input 132 Nutrients and dissolved oxygen 76 Water chemistry 132 Summary of water quality in a Biotic components 134 mangrove forest 76 Plants 134 Energy flow and the importance of Fungi and bacteria 135 Vll Animals 136 Aquatic animals 177 Food webs 136 Terrestrial animals 178 Physical patterns in lakes 137 Chapter 6 Freshwater-swamp Lake Kawar and Lake forests 179 Mardingding 138 Introduction 179 Temperature 139 Soils 179 Dissolved oxygen 140 Vegetation 180 Nutrients and conductivity 142 Composition and structure 180 Light penetration 145 Adaptations to floods 181 Stability 145 Fauna 182 Biotic patterns in lakes 146 Layers -light and oxygen 146 Chapter 7 Lowland forests 189 Water hyacinth community Introduction 189 ecology 147 Diversity of plants 189 Physical patterns in rivers 149 Diversity of animals 191 Current velocity 149 Vegetation 193 Shear stress on the riverbed 150 Characteristics 193 Riverbed particle size 150 Forest growth cycle 193 Temperature 151 Floristic composition and Dissolved oxygen 151 variation 198 Mineral nutrients 152 Layering 200 Biotic patterns in rivers 152 Basal area 202 Current 152 Biomass 202 Plants 155 Leaf area index 202 Invertebrates 155 Litter production 202 Fish 155 Total primary production 205 Substratum 156 Mineral cycling 205 Temperature and dissolved Ecology of some forest oxygen 157 components 206 Mineral nutrients 159 Roots 206 Biotic factors 159 Buttresses and trunks 206 Energy flow in rivers 160 Climbing plants 208 Longitudinal patterns 161 Epiphytes and epiphylls 210 Benthos dynamics in rivers 163 Gaps 213 Invertebrate drift 163 Figs 214 Colonisation cycles 164 Rafflesia 217 Cycles of flower, fruit and leaf Chapter 5 Peatswamp forests 167 production 219 Introduction 167 Gregarious fruiting 221 Peatswamp formation 168 Effects of flower, fruit and leaf Formation of ombrogenous production cycles on animals 222 peatswamp 168 Seed dispersal 225 Formation of topogenous Leaves and bark as sources of peatswamp 170 food 230 Drainage and drainage water 171 Leaves 230 Vegetation 172 Bark 232 Composition 172 Soil and its animals 233 Structure 174 Termites 233 Ecological consequences of low Spacing of vertebrate animals 237 nutrient levels 175 Social systems 237 Ecological consequences of high Niches 238 levels of secondary compounds 177 Niche differentiation 240 Microorganisms 177 Vlll Primates 240 Mountain lakes 302 Temporal separation of animal Animals and their zonation 303 calls 248 Invertebrates 303 Density of larger animals 251 Reptiles and amphibians 304 Birds 304 Chapter 8 Uncommon lowland Mammals 305 forest 253 Introduction 253 Chapter 10 Caves 313 Heath forest/padang vegetation 253 Introduction 313 Soil 253 Cave structure 313 Drainage water 254 The cave as a habitat 315 Vegetation 255 Darkness 315 Fauna 258 Temperature, humidity and air Distribution of heath forest on flow 319 Bangka and Belitung Islands 263 Food 320 Ironwood forest 265 Roof community 321 Introduction 265 Floor community 322 The tree 265 Food webs and pyramids 323 The forest 266 Differences within caves 326 Soils and topography 266 Differences between caves 328 Fauna 268 Caves as islands 335 Ecological significance 270 Part C Forest on limestone 271 Man-made ecosystems 337 Introduction 271 Soils 271 Chapter 11 Effects of Vegetation 273 disturbance 339 Fauna 274 Introduction 339 General effects of disturbance on Chapter 9 Mountains 277 forests 340 Introduction 277 Introduction 340 Climate 277 The relevance of island Temperature 277 biogeographic theory 341 Relative humidity 278 Genetic erosion and Clouds 279 conservation 342 Rainfall 280 Atmospheric and climatic Frost 280 changes 343 Ultraviolet radiation 280 Primary succession - the case of Soils 281 Krakatau 343 Vegetation 282 Mangroves 347 Introduction 282 Other coastal ecosystems 349 Characteristic plants 286 Beach vegetation 349 Leaf adaptations to temperature Brackishwater forest 350 and radiation 290 Rocky shores 350 Origin and dispersal of the Coral reefs 350 flora 291 Rivers and lakes 353 Biomass and productivity 296 Introduction 353 Mineral cycling 296 Industrial and domestic Limitations on forest distribution pollution 353 and growth 299 Poisons and bombs 355 Similarities between upper Aquarium and food trade 355 montane forest and heath Introduced species 356 forest 300 Forest clearance 356 Volcanoes 301 Peatswamp forest 357 lX