The Disempowered Development of Tibet in China Studies in Modern Tibetan Culture Series Editor Gray Tuttle, Columbia University Advisory Board Lauran Hartley, Columbia University (literature) Isabelle Henrion-Dourcy, Université Laval (anthropology) Kurtis Schaeffer, University of Virginia (religion) Emily Yeh, University of Colorado at Boulder (human geography) The Studies in Modern Tibetan Culture series focuses on Tibetan culture and society from the early modern period of the seventeenth century to the present. The first series on modern Tibetan studies by a scholarly press, it explores how modernity manifests in a wide range of fields, not only religion, but also literature, history, economy, anthropology, media, and politics. It seeks to bring rarely heard and important Tibetan perspectives to a wider audience by publishing fresh analyses of yet unexplored source materials ranging from census and yearbook databases to auto/biographies and ethnographic fieldwork, as well as original translations of poetry, biography, and history. Titles in Series The Nine-Eyed Agate: Poems and Stories by Jangbu and translated by Heather Stoddard Labrang Monastery: A Tibetan Buddhist Community on the Inner Asian Borderlands, 1709–1958 by Paul Kocot Nietupski The Hidden Life of the Sixth Dalai Lama by Ngawang Lhundrup Dargyé and translated by Simon Wickham-Smith The Disempowered Development of Tibet in China: A Study in the Economics of Marginalization by Andrew Martin Fischer Studies of the Weatherhead East Asian Institute Columbia University Selected Titles (Complete list at: http://www.columbia.edu/cu/weai/weatherhead-studies.html) Beyond the Metropolis: Second Cities and Modern Life in Interwar Japan, by Louise Young. University of California Press, 2013. Imperial Eclipse: Japan’s Strategic Thinking about Continental Asia before August 1945, by Yukiko Koshiro. Cornell University Press, 2013. The Nature of the Beasts: Empire and Exhibition at the Tokyo Imperial Zoo, by Ian J. Miller. University of California Press, 2013. Reconstructing Bodies: Biomedicine, Health, and Nation-Building in South Korea since 1945, by John P. DiMoia. Stanford University Press, 2013. Tyranny of the Weak: North Korea and the World, 1950–1992, by Charles Armstrong. Cornell University Press, 2013 The Art of Censorship in Postwar Japan, by Kirsten Cather. University of Hawai‘i Press, 2012. Asia for the Asians: China in the Lives of Five Meiji Japanese, by Paula Harrell. MerwinAsia, 2012. Lin Shu, Inc.: Translation and the Making of Modern Chinese Culture, by Michael Gibbs Hill. Oxford University Press, 2012. Occupying Power: Sex Workers and Servicemen in Postwar Japan, by Sarah Kovner. Stanford University Press, 2012. Redacted: The Archives of Censorship in Postwar Japan, by Jonathan E. Abel. University of California Press, 2012. Empire of Dogs: Canines, Japan, and the Making of the Modern Imperial World, by Aaron Herald Skabelund. Cornell University Press, 2011. Planning for Empire: Reform Bureaucrats and the Japanese Wartime State, by Janis Mimura. Cornell University Press, 2011. Realms of Literacy: Early Japan and the History of Writing, by David Lurie. Harvard University Asia Center, 2011. Russo-Japanese Relations, 1905–17: From Enemies to Allies, by Peter Berton. Routledge, 2011. Behind the Gate: Inventing Students in Beijing, by Fabio Lanza. Columbia University Press, 2010. Imperial Japan at Its Zenith: The Wartime Celebration of the Empire’s 2,600th Anniversary, by Kenneth J. Ruoff. Cornell University Press, 2010. Passage to Manhood: Youth Migration, Heroin, and AIDS in Southwest China, by Shao- hua Liu. Stanford University Press, 2010. Postwar History Education in Japan and the Germanys: Guilty Lessons, by Julian Dierkes. Routledge, 2010. The Aesthetics of Japanese Fascism, by Alan Tansman. University of California Press, 2009. The Growth Idea: Purpose and Prosperity in Postwar Japan, by Scott O’Bryan. University of Hawai‘i Press, 2009. Leprosy in China: A History, by Angela Ki Che Leung. Columbia University Press, 2008. National History and the World of Nations: Capital, State, and the Rhetoric of History in Japan, France, and the United States, by Christopher Hill. Duke University Press, 2008. The Disempowered Development of Tibet in China A Study in the Economics of Marginalization Andrew Martin Fischer Studies of the Weatherhead East Asian Institute, Columbia University The Studies of the Weatherhead East Asian Institute of Columbia University were inaugurated in 1962 to bring to a wider public the results of significant new research on modern and contemporary East Asia. LEXINGTON BOOKS Lanham • Boulder • New York • Toronto • Plymouth, UK Published by Lexington Books A wholly owned subsidiary of Rowman & Littlefield 4501 Forbes Boulevard, Suite 200, Lanham, Maryland 20706 www.rowman.com 10 Thornbury Road, Plymouth PL6 7PP, United Kingdom Copyright © 2014 by Lexington Books All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form or by any electronic or mechanical means, including information storage and retrieval systems, without written permission from the publisher, except by a reviewer who may quote passages in a review. British Library Cataloguing in Publication Information Available Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Fischer, Andrew Martin, 1967- The disempowered development of Tibet in China : a study in the economics of marginalization / Andrew Martin Fischer. pages cm. -- (Studies of the weatherhead East Asian institute) (Studies in modern Tibetan culture) Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-0-7391-3437-5 (cloth : alk. paper) -- ISBN 978-0-7391-3438-2 (pbk. : alk. paper) -- ISBN 978-0-7391-3439-9 (electronic) 1. Tibet Autonomous Region (China)--Economic conditions. 2. Tibet Autonomous Region (China)--Social conditions. 3. Economic development--China--Tibet Autonomous Region. 4. Marginality, Social--China--Tibet Autonomous Region. I. Title. HC428.T48F567 2013 338.951’5--dc23 2013032370 ` ™ The paper used in this publication meets the minimum requirements of American National Standard for Information Sciences—Permanence of Paper for Printed Library Materials, ANSI/NISO Z39.48-1992. Printed in the United States of America To my teachers, both spiritual and secular May I humbly transmit their lineages To my mother, Phyllis Mary, my muse and Amiya and Éva, our delight and devotion Table of Contents List of Figures, Maps, and Tables xi List of Abbreviations xv Note on Tibetan Spelling xvii Glossary (a Note on Terminology) xix Acknowledgments: Reflections on Researching Development in Tibet xxv Preface xxix 1 I ntroduction: The Disempowered Development of Tibet in China 1 2 The Inception of Modern Development in Tibet under PRC Rule 47 3 Population Foundations of Marginalization in Tibet 83 4 Instituting Economic Growth and Marginalization in Tibet 127 5 The Great Transformation of Tibet? Rapid Labor Transitions, Polarization, and the Emerging Fault Lines of Stratification in Urban Tibet 191 6 The Education-Employment Nexus of Exclusion in Tibet 247 7 Subsistence Capacity and the Material Foundations of Resistance 291 8 Boycotts and Religious Networks: Counter-Strategies of Integration into the Heart of the New China 335 ix