THE DIFFUSION AND ADOPTION OF SPORT PSYCHOLOGY BY ATHLETICS COACHES Amanda Jane Wilding A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements of Bournemouth University for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy BOURNEMOUTH UNIVERSITY December 2016 i This copy of the thesis has been supplied on condition that anyone who consults it is understood to recognise that its copyright rests with its author and due acknowledgement must always be made of the use of any material contained in, or derived from, this thesis. i ABSTRACT Since the 1980s, commonly referred to as the ‘golden era’ of sport psychology (Biddle 1989), there has been a consistent stream of evidence surrounding the usefulness and positive impact of sport psychology upon athletic performance (Zakrajsek et al 2013). However, the process and factors which impact upon the transference of such knowledge into the coaching environment has been limited. Thus, while sport psychology as an academic field is well established, its use in the applied setting is reported to be sporadic but with little understanding as to why. This thesis examines the use of Rogers’ Theory of Diffusion of Innovations within the athletics domain. Specifically, the focus is to examine the process of diffusion and adoption and its associated constructs affecting athletics coaches’ decision-making process surrounding the learning about and subsequent use of sport psychology. Consequently, the aim of the study was to critically analyse and explore the diffusion process, and factors which influence the adoption of sport psychology, thus providing a synthesis of research in the form of a conceptual framework. To achieve this, from the post-positivist standpoint, a mixed-methods multi-strand design was implemented to guide the methodological process. Phase 1 involved the undertaking of semi-structured interviews in order to establish initial insights into the understanding of coaches and the subjective reality of sport psychology in athletics coaching. Results from the representative sample of licensed athletics coaches authenticated the use of the Theory of Diffusion of Innovations as a mechanism for evaluating coaches’ decision-making surrounding the use of sport psychology. Information gathered informed the development of Phase 2 which incorporated the concurrent collection of quantitative data (strand A) and qualitative data (strand B) thus providing deeper insights into the process of diffusion and the driving forces that influence the adoption decision. 160 UK licensed athlete coaches completed the quantitative survey which was divided into five sections pertaining to each stage of the Innovation-Decision Process and additional information surrounding the driving forces affecting the process. Qualitative semi-structured interviews were undertaken with 24 participants representing the varying roles within the athletic social system. The results showed there to be two component parts to the diffusion and adoption of sport psychology. The cognitive aspect incorporated knowledge, understanding and perception development and led to a decision for or against the use of sport psychology. The behavioural aspects included implementation and confirmation of previously made decisions regarding the use of sport psychology. Each stage of the Innovation-Decision Process was found to be affected by intra and inter personal and structural barriers. Those experiences were dependent on coaches’ classification as a participation or performance coach along with their level of educational background in sport. However, barriers could be overcome by facilitating factors. The study raises both theoretical and practical implications and recommendations for facilitating an improved diffusion and adoption process. i TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER 1 – INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................ - 1 - 1.1 BACKGROUND CONTEXT .......................................................................................................... - 1 - 1.2 DIFFUSION OF INNOVATIONS ................................................................................................... - 3 - 1.3 THE CONTEXTUALISATION OF COACHING ............................................................................. - 5 - 1.3.1 Coach Education and Learning .......................................................................................... - 5 - 1.3.2 The Art versus Science of Coaching .................................................................................. - 5 - 1.4 CONCEPTUALISING SPORT PSYCHOLOGY ............................................................................ - 8 - 1.4.1 Introduction to Sport Psychology ....................................................................................... - 8 - 1.4.2 Applied Sport Psychology .................................................................................................. - 9 - 1.5 RATIONALE AND POSITION WITHIN THE RESEARCH .......................................................... - 12 - 1.6 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES ........................................................................................................... - 14 - 1.7 STRUCTURE OF THE THESIS ................................................................................................. - 16 - CHAPTER 2 - LITERATURE REVIEW ................................................................................................... - 17 - 2.1 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................................ - 17 - 2.2 THE NATURE OF AN INNOVATION.......................................................................................... - 19 - 2.2.1 Invention versus Innovation ............................................................................................. - 19 - 2.2.2 Desired Outcome of an Innovation .................................................................................. - 20 - 2.3 DIFFUSION OF INNOVATIONS ................................................................................................. - 21 - 2.3.1 Elements of Diffusion ...................................................................................................... - 21 - 2.3.2 Perceived Characteristics of Innovations ......................................................................... - 28 - 2.4 THE PROCESS OF CHANGE .................................................................................................... - 33 - 2.4.1 Models of Diffusion and Adoption .................................................................................. - 33 - 2.4.2 Origins of the Diffusion Model ........................................................................................ - 34 - 2.4.3 The Process of Diffusion .................................................................................................. - 35 - 2.5 THE SYNTHESIS OF DIFFUSION AND SPORT PSYCHOLOGY ............................................. - 43 - 2.5.1 Diffusion in Sport Psychology ......................................................................................... - 43 - 2.6 BARRIERS TO THE DIFFUSION AND ADOPTION OF SPORT PSYCHOLOGY ..................... - 44 - 2.6.1 Existing Barriers towards Sport Psychology .................................................................... - 44 - 2.7 CONCEPTUALISING BARRIERS .............................................................................................. - 53 - 2.7.1 Leisure Constraints Model ............................................................................................... - 53 - 2.8 CATEGORISING CONSTRAINTS.............................................................................................. - 56 - 2.8.1 Intra-personal Constraints ................................................................................................ - 58 - 2.8.2 Inter-personal Constraints ................................................................................................ - 60 - 2.8.3 Structural Constraints ....................................................................................................... - 60 - 2.9 SYNTHESIS OF MATERIAL; CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORKS ................................................. - 62 - 2.10 CHAPTER CONCLUSION .......................................................................................................... - 66 - CHAPTER 3 - METHODOLOGY .......................................................................................................... - 69 - ii 3.1 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................................ - 69 - 3.2 RESEARCH DESIGN ................................................................................................................. - 70 - 3.2.1 The Theory of Knowledge and Existence ........................................................................ - 71 - 3.3 CHOICE OF PARADIGM ............................................................................................................ - 73 - 3.3.1 Paradigm Wars .......................................................................................................................... - 73 - 3.4 MIXED METHODS ..................................................................................................................... - 76 - 3.4.1 Mixed method design (MMD) ......................................................................................... - 76 - 3.4.2 Advantages of Mixed Method Designs ............................................................................ - 77 - 3.4.3 Limitations of MMDs ...................................................................................................... - 79 - 3.4.4 Types of MMD ................................................................................................................. - 80 - 3.5 PHASE ONE ............................................................................................................................... - 82 - 3.5.1 The Qualitative Exploration ............................................................................................. - 82 - 3.5.2 Inductive Approach .......................................................................................................... - 83 - 3.5.3 Data Collection................................................................................................................. - 84 - 3.6 PHASE TWO – STRAND A ........................................................................................................ - 88 - 3.6.1 Deductive Approach ......................................................................................................... - 88 - 3.6.2 Quantitative Data - Questionnaire .................................................................................... - 89 - 3.6.3 Sampling Method ............................................................................................................. - 96 - 3.6.4 Procedure ......................................................................................................................... - 96 - 3.6.5 Data Analysis ................................................................................................................... - 97 - 3.7 PHASE TWO - STRAND B ....................................................................................................... - 100 - 3.7.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................... - 100 - 3.7.2 Semi-Structured Interviews ............................................................................................ - 100 - 3.7.3 Participants ..................................................................................................................... - 100 - 3.7.4 Procedure ....................................................................................................................... - 101 - 3.7.5 Data Analysis ................................................................................................................. - 102 - 3.8 ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS ................................................................................................. - 103 - 3.8.1 Lifecycle of the Data ...................................................................................................... - 103 - 3.8.2 Ethical Obligations ......................................................................................................... - 104 - 3.8.3 Informed Consent ........................................................................................................... - 104 - 3.8.5 Goodness of the Data ..................................................................................................... - 104 - 3.9 CONCLUSION .......................................................................................................................... - 107 - CHAPTER 4 – PHASE ONE RESULTS ................................................................................................ - 108 - 4.1 INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................................................... - 108 - 4.2 RESULTS OF PHASE ONE ..................................................................................................... - 108 - 4.2.1 Subjective Reality; Coaches’ meaning of Sport Psychology ......................................... - 108 - 4.2.2 Knowledge, Understanding and Awareness ................................................................... - 109 - 4.2.3 Persuasion, Perceptions and Opinions ............................................................................ - 111 - 4.2.4 Implementation, Use and the Adoption of Sport Psychology ........................................ - 111 - 4.2.5 Confirmation of Previous Decisions .............................................................................. - 113 - 4.2.6 Macro, Organisational and Structural Influences ........................................................... - 114 - iii 4.3 CONCLUSION FOR RESULTS; PHASE ONE ......................................................................... - 115 - CHAPTER 5 – KNOWLEDGE; AWARENESS, EXPOSURE AND UNDERSTANDING ..... - 117 - 5.1 ORGANISATION OF THE CHAPTER ...................................................................................... - 117 - 5.1.1 Hypothesis Testing ......................................................................................................... - 117 - 5.2 STRAND A, QUANTITATIVE RESULTS: KNOWLEDGE, EXPOSURE AND AWARENESS OF SPORT PSYCHOLOGY ........................................................................................................... - 118 - 5.2.1 Stage One, Innovation-Decision Process; Seeking Knowledge ..................................... - 118 - 5.3 INITIAL EXPOSURE AND DISCOVERY BEHAVIOURS .......................................................... - 120 - 5.3.1 Gaining Knowledge ....................................................................................................... - 120 - 5.3.2 Initial Exposure .............................................................................................................. - 120 - 5.4 TRIGGER FOR KNOWLEDGE ................................................................................................ - 123 - 5.4.1 Needs versus Individual Differences .............................................................................. - 123 - 5.5 EXPOSURE TO SUB-DISCIPLINES OF SPORT PSYCHOLOGY ........................................... - 125 - 5.5.1 Coaches Breadth of Knowledge ..................................................................................... - 125 - 5.5.2 Overall Conclusion on Types of Sports Psychology ...................................................... - 128 - 5.6 COMMUNICATION CHANNELS .............................................................................................. - 128 - 5.6.1 The Flow of Knowledge ................................................................................................. - 128 - 5.6.2 Mediated versus Unmediated Sources of Knowledge .................................................... - 131 - 5.7 SUMMARY OF QUANTITATIVE RESULTS; KNOWLEDGE .................................................... - 133 - 5.8 STRAND B, QUALITATIVE RESULTS: SOURCES OF KNOWLEDGE ................................... - 134 - 5.8.1 Knowledge Acquisition .................................................................................................. - 134 - 5.9 INADEQUATE SOURCES OF KNOWLEDGE ......................................................................... - 135 - 5.9.1 Lack of Knowledge ........................................................................................................ - 136 - 5.9.2 Personal Experience ....................................................................................................... - 137 - 5.10 UNMEDIATED SOURCES OF KNOWLEDGE ......................................................................... - 138 - 5.10.1 Communication with Others ........................................................................................ - 139 - 5.10.2 Traditional Print Sources of Information ..................................................................... - 141 - 5.10.3 Media Sources of Information ...................................................................................... - 142 - 5.11 MEDIATED SOURCES OF KNOWLEDGE .............................................................................. - 143 - 5.11.1 Communication with Opinion Leaders ........................................................................ - 144 - 5.11.2 Actions of Gatekeepers ................................................................................................ - 146 - 5.11.3 Communication with Change Agents ........................................................................... - 148 - 5.11.4 Courses and Workshops ............................................................................................... - 150 - 5.12 SUMMARY OF QUALITATIVE RESULTS; KNOWLEDGE ...................................................... - 151 - 5.13 SECTION THREE, DISCUSSION: EXPOSURE, AWARENESS, KNOWLEDGE AND UNDERSTANDING OF SPORT PSYCHOLOGY ..................................................................... - 152 - 5.13.1 Merging the Innovation-Development and Innovation-Decision Processes ................ - 152 - 5.14 COACHES INITIAL EXPOSURE TO SPORT PSYCHOLOGY.......................................... - 153 - 5.15 TRIGGERS FOR KNOWLEDGE AND DISCOVERY BEHAVIOURS ....................................... - 155 - 5.16 REDEFINING KNOWLEDGE AND UNDERSTANDING .......................................................... - 157 - 5.17 EXPOSURE TO SPORT PSYCHOLOGY ............................................................................... - 159 - iv 5.17. 1 Disciplines of Sport Psychology ................................................................................. - 159 - 5.18 COMMUNICATION CHANNELS IN THE ATHLETIC SOCIAL SYSTEM ................................. - 162 - 5.18.1 Structure of the Athletic Social System........................................................................ - 163 - 5.19 THE CONTINUUM OF KNOWLEDGE ..................................................................................... - 165 - 5.20 CONCLUSION OF KNOWLEDGE RESULTS .......................................................................... - 166 - CHAPTER 6 – PERSUASTION; ATTITUDES, PERCEPTIONS AND RECEPTIVITY TO SPORT PSYCHOLOGY……. ...................................................................................................................................................... - 167 - 6.1 ORGANISATION OF THE CHAPTER ...................................................................................... - 167 - 6.2 STRAND A, QUANTITATIVE RESULTS: PERSUASION, PERCEPTIONS, ATTITUDES AND BELIEFS ................................................................................................................................... - 167 - 6.2.1 Stage Two of the Innovation-Decision Process: Being Persuaded ................................. - 167 - 6.2.2 Transition from Knowledge to Persuasion ..................................................................... - 169 - 6.3 FREQUENCY OF SEEKING BEHAVIOURS ............................................................................ - 170 - 6.3.1 Perceived Usefulness of Sources of Information Coaches have Access to .................... - 170 - 6.4 PERCEIVED BENEFICIARIES OF SPORT PSYCHOLOGY ................................................... - 173 - 6.5 BENEFITS OF SPORT PSYCHOLOGY ................................................................................... - 180 - 6.5.1 Grassroots and Elite ....................................................................................................... - 180 - 6.5.2 Perceived Benefits of Sport Psychology at the Elite Level ............................................ - 181 - 6.5.3 Perceived Benefits of Sport Psychology at Grassroots Level ........................................ - 182 - 6.6 SUMMARY FOR QUANTITATIVE RESULTS; PERSUASION ................................................. - 183 - 6.7 STRAND B, QUALITATIVE RESULTS: DEVELOPING PERCEPTIONS OF SPORT PSYCHOLOGY ........................................................................................................................ - 184 - 6.7.1 Myths and Misconceptions ............................................................................................ - 184 - 6.8 ABILITY TO SUBJECTIVELY MEASURE SPORT PSYCHOLOGY ......................................... - 185 - 6.8.1 Subjective Measure of Sport Psychology ....................................................................... - 185 - 6.8.2 Objective Measure of Sport Psychology ........................................................................ - 188 - 6.9 EVALUATION OF ATTITUDES TOWARDS SPORT PSYCHOLOGY ..................................... - 189 - 6.9.1 Resistance to Sport Psychology ..................................................................................... - 189 - 6.9.2 Receptivity to Sport Psychology .................................................................................... - 191 - 6.10 CHARACTERISTICS INFLUENCING COACH PERCEPTIONS OF SPORT PSYCHOLOGY . - 193 - 6.10.1 Visibility of Sport Psychology ..................................................................................... - 193 - 6.10.2 Trialibility of Sport Psychology ................................................................................... - 196 - 6.11 SUMMARY OF QUALITATIVE RESULTS: PERSUASION ...................................................... - 197 - 6.12 SECTION THREE, DISCUSSION: PERSUASION VERSUS PERCEPTIONS ......................... - 198 - 6.12.1 Underlying Constructions of Persuasion ...................................................................... - 198 - 6.13 THE ROLE OF PERCEIVED ATTRIBUTES ON THE DIFFUSION AND ADOPTION OF SPORT PSYCHOLOGY ........................................................................................................................ - 199 - 6.14 ART VERSUS SCIENCE DILEMMA......................................................................................... - 202 - 6.15 RECEPTIVITY VERSUS RESISTANCE TO SPORT PSYCHOLOGY ..................................... - 204 - 6.16 BENEFICIARIES AND BENEFITS OF SPORT PSYCHOLOGY .............................................. - 205 - 6.17 CONCLUSION OF PERSUASION RESULTS .......................................................................... - 206 - v CHAPTER 7 – DECISION MAKING ................................................................................................... - 207 - 7.1. ORGANISATION OF THE CHAPTER ...................................................................................... - 207 - 7.2 STRAND A, QUANTATIVE RESULTS: UNITS OF ENGAGEMENT FOR DECISION MAKING…………………………………………………………………………………………………- 207 - 7.2.1 Stage Three of Rogers (2003) Innovation-Decision Process: Making the Decision ...... - 207 - 7.2.2 Transition Point from Persuasion to Decision ................................................................ - 209 - 7.3 CONSCIOUS VERSUS UNCONSCIOUS DECISIONS TO ATTEND TRAINING ACTIVITIES ON SPORT PSYCHOLOGY ........................................................................................................... - 209 - 7.3.1 Individual Characteristics and Coaches’ Conscious Decision to attend Sport Psychology Training Sessions .................................................................................................................... - 210 - 7.4 OTHER PEOPLE INVOLVED IN COACHES’ DECISION TO USE SPORT PSYCHOLOGY…………. ......................................................................................................... - 211 - 7.5 SYMBOLIC ADOPTION ........................................................................................................... - 213 - 7.6 SUMMARY FOR QUANTATITIVE RESULTS; DECISION-MAKING ........................................ - 214 - 7.7 STRAND B, QUALITATIVE RESULTS: DECISION-MAKING FOR THE ADOPTION OF SPORT PSYCHOLOGY ........................................................................................................................ - 215 - 7.8 POTENTIAL OUTCOMES OF A DECISION ............................................................................ - 215 - 7.8.1 Rejection of Sport Psychology ....................................................................................... - 215 - 7.8.2 Acceptance of Sport Psychology .................................................................................... - 218 - 7.8.3 Postponement of Sport Psychology ................................................................................ - 223 - 7.9 SUMMARY FOR QUALITATIVE RESULTS; DECISION-MAKING .......................................... - 226 - 7.10 SECTION 3, DISCUSSION: DECISION-MAKING PROCESSES ............................................. - 226 - 7.10.1 Possible Outcomes of a Decision ................................................................................. - 226 - 7.10.2 Conscious and Unconscious Decisions in Athletics ..................................................... - 227 - 7.10.3 Role of Social Determinants ........................................................................................ - 228 - 7.10.4 Patterns of Decisional Choice ...................................................................................... - 228 - 7.11 CONCLUSION OF DECISION RESULTS ................................................................................ - 232 - CHAPTER 8 – IMPLEMENTATION OF SPORT PSYCHOLOGY ............................................................ - 234 - 8.1 ORGANISATION OF THE CHAPTER ...................................................................................... - 234 - 8.2 STRAND A, QUANTITATIVE RESULTS: THE TYPOLOGY OF IMPLEMENTATION…………………………………………………………………………………...- 234 - 8.2.1 Stage Three, Innovation-Decision Process; Behavioural Adoption ............................... - 234 - 8.3 CHANGING TRAINING PRACTICES ....................................................................................... - 235 - 8.4 IMPLEMENTATION OF INTERVENTION TECHNIQUES ........................................................ - 237 - 8.4.1 Factors Affecting the Implementation of Sport Psychology .......................................... - 238 - 8.4.2 Varying Levels of Implementation of Mental Skills Training Techniques .................... - 245 - 8.5 SUMMARY OF QUANTITATIVE RESULTS: IMPLEMENTATION ........................................... - 246 - 8.6 STRAND B, QUALITATIVE RESULTS: THE DICTONOMY OF IMPLEMENTATION .............. - 246 - 8.6.1 The Utilisation of Sport Psychology .............................................................................. - 246 - 8.6.2 Spontaneous Implementation of Sport Psychology ........................................................ - 247 - 8.6.3 Translation of Information for Implementation ............................................................. - 250 - vi 8.6.4 Structured Implementation of Sport Psychology ........................................................... - 256 - 8.7 SUMMARY OF QUALITATIVE RESULTS; IMPLEMENTATION .............................................. - 259 - 8.8 SECTION THREE, DISCUSSION; OPERATIONALISING THE IMPLEMENTATION SPORT PSYCHOLOGY ........................................................................................................................ - 260 - 8.8.1 Transition from Cognitive to Behavioural Adoption ..................................................... - 260 - 8.9 INFORMAL VERSUS FORMAL IMPLEMENTATION OF SPORT PSYCHOLOGY ................. - 260 - 8.10 REINVENTION IN ORDER TO IMPLEMENT SPORT PSYCHOLOGY.................................... - 263 - 8.11 CONCLUSION OF IMPLEMTATION RESULTS ...................................................................... - 264 - CHAPTER 9 – CONFIRMATION OF SPORT PSYCHOLOGY ................................................................. - 265 - 9.1 ORGANISATION OF THE CHAPTER ...................................................................................... - 265 - 9.2 STRAND A, QUANTITATIVE RESULTS: CONFIRMATION, THE FINAL EVALUATIONS.. .... - 265 - 9.2.1 Stage Five, Innovation-Decision Process: Confirming the Decision ............................. - 265 - 9.3 REINFORCEMENT OF SPORT PSYCHOLOGY ..................................................................... - 266 - 9.4 ADVANTAGES OF SPORT PSYCHOLOGY ............................................................................ - 268 - 9.5 DISENCHANTMENT ................................................................................................................ - 271 - 9.6 REPLACEMENT; THE RANKED IMPORTANCE OF SPORT PSYCHOLOGY ........................ - 272 - 9.7 SUMMARY OF QUANTITATIVE RESULTS: CONFIRMATION ............................................... - 273 - 9.8 STRAND B, QUALITATIVE: CONFIRMATION OF THE DIFFUSION OF SPORT PSYCHOLOGY…. .................................................................................................................... - 274 - 9.8.1 The Reinforcement of Previous Decisions ..................................................................... - 274 - 9.9 NEGATIVE ASSESSMENT OF SPORT PSYCHOLOGY ......................................................... - 274 - 9.9.1 Confirmation of Coaches’ Rejection of Sport Psychology ............................................ - 275 - 9.9.2 Coaches’ Reversal of the Decision to Use Sport Psychology ........................................ - 276 - 9.10 POSITIVE EVALUATION OF SPORT PSYCHOLOGY ............................................................ - 277 - 9.10.1 Positive Impact for Athletes’ ........................................................................................ - 277 - 9.10.2 Positive Impact for Coaching Practice ......................................................................... - 278 - 9.11 INTEGRATION INTO COACHING PRACTICE ........................................................................ - 279 - 9.11.1 Embedded as part of Coaching Practice ....................................................................... - 280 - 9.11.2 Implementing Sport Psychology on an Individual Basis .............................................. - 281 - 9.12 PROMOTION OF SPORT PSYCHOLOGY TO OTHERS FOR DIFFUSION ............................ - 283 - 9.12.1 Sharing Information Positively with Others ................................................................. - 284 - 9.12.2 Unwillingness to Share Information ............................................................................. - 285 - 9.13 SUMMARY OF QUALITATIVE RESULTS: CONFIRMATION .................................................. - 285 - 9.14 SECTION THREE, DISCUSSION: CONFIRMATION OF THE DIFFUSION AND ADOPTION OF SPORT PSYCHOLOGY ........................................................................................................... - 286 - 9.14.1 The Theory of Reinforcement ...................................................................................... - 286 - 9.15 ACCEPTANCE/CONFIRMATION OF SPORT PSYCHOLOGY ............................................... - 287 - 9.16 NEGATIVE CONFIRMATION OF SPORT PSYCHOLOGY ...................................................... - 287 - 9.17 THE RECIPIENTS OF SPORT PSYCHOLOGY ....................................................................... - 288 - 9.18 CONCLUSION OF CONFIRMATION RESULTS ...................................................................... - 288 - vii CHAPTER 10 - CONSOLIDATION OF THEORETICAL DEVELOPMENTS ............................................... - 290 - 10.1 ORGANISATION OF THE CHAPTER ...................................................................................... - 290 - 10.2 CONSOLIDATION OF THE CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK .................................................... - 290 - 10.2.1 Conceptual Elements of Diffusion and Adoption......................................................... - 290 - 10.3 CHALLENGING AND EXTENDING EXISTING KNOWLEDGE ................................................ - 295 - 10.4 CONCLUSION TO THEORETICAL CONTRIBUTIONS ........................................................... - 300 - CHAPTER 11 - BARRIERS AND FACILITATORS OF SPORT PSYCHOLOGY .......................................... - 301 - 11.1 INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................................................... - 301 - 11.2 STRAND A, QUANTITATIVE RESULTS: BARRIERS AND FACILITATORS OF SPORT PSYCHOLOGY ........................................................................................................................ - 302 - 11.2.1 Barriers to the Diffusion and Adoption of Sport Psychology....................................... - 302 - 11.3 OVERCOMING THE BARRIERS ............................................................................................. - 305 - 11.4 PERCEIVED ATTRIBUTES OF SPORT PSYCHOLOGY AS AN INNOVATION ..................... - 307 - 11.4.1 Facilitating the Process of Diffusion ............................................................................ - 307 - 11.5 FACILITATORS FOR ADOPTION AND DIFFUSION ............................................................... - 320 - 11.5.1 Driving Forces for Consideration ................................................................................. - 320 - 11.6 SUMMARY OF QUANTITATIVE RESULTS; BARRIERS AND FACILITATORS ..................... - 330 - 11.7 STRAND B, QUALITATIVE RESULTS; BARRIERS AND FCAILITATORS TO THE USE OF SPORT PSYCHOLOGY ........................................................................................................... - 331 - 11.7.1 Structure and Organisation of Barriers ......................................................................... - 331 - 11.8 STRUCTURAL BARRIERS TO THE DIFFUSION AND ADOPTION OF SPORT PSYCHOLOGY…… ................................................................................................................. - 331 - 11.8.1 Structure and Guidance from Governance ................................................................... - 332 - 11.8.2 Demands of the NGB ................................................................................................... - 334 - 11.8.3 Difficulty Accessing Resources ................................................................................... - 334 - 11.8.4 Cost of Resources ......................................................................................................... - 336 - 11.8.5 Voluntary Culture of Athletics Coaches....................................................................... - 337 - 11.9 INTER-PERSONAL BARRIERS TO COACHES’ DIFFUSION AND ADOPTION OF SPORT PSYCHOLOGY ........................................................................................................................ - 339 - 11.9.1 Limited Time with Athletes ......................................................................................... - 339 - 11.9.2 Dealing with Athletes ................................................................................................... - 341 - 11.10 INTRAPERSONAL BARRIERS TO SPORT PSYCHOLOGY ................................................... - 342 - 11.10.1 Coaches’ Lack of Knowledge to Use Sport Psychology ............................................ - 342 - 11.10.2 Myths, Misconceptions and Stigma of Sport Psychology .......................................... - 343 - 11.11 FACILITATORS AS A DRIVING FORCE ................................................................................... - 345 - 11.11.1 Support Systems for Facilitating the Use of Sport Psychology .................................. - 345 - 11.12 THE ROLE OF NATIONAL GOVERNING BODIES IN THE DIFFUSION AND ADOPTION OF SPORT PSYCHOLOGY ........................................................................................................... - 349 - 11.12.1 Consistent Professional Guidance from NGBs .......................................................... - 350 - 11.12.2 Regional Clusters of Approved Sport Psychologists .................................................. - 351 - 11.12.3 National Governing Body Initiatives ......................................................................... - 353 - viii