Science and Mathematics Education Centre THE DEVELOPMENT AND APPLICATION OF AN EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY ACCEPTANCE MODEL Dobrila Lopez This thesis is presented for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy of Curtin University February 2013 Declaration To the best of my knowledge and belief this thesis contains no material previously published by any other person except where due acknowledgment has been made. This thesis contains no material which has been accepted for the award of any other degree or diploma in any university. i ABSTRACT This research developed and implemented the educational technology acceptance model ETAM. The model was developed to investigate the attitude towards technology acceptance in educational settings. It is evolutionary in its nature and combines the two well‐known instruments, the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) and the What Is Happening In this Classroom (WIHIC) to make a new educational technology acceptance model. This model incorporated all the WIHIC scales (Student Cohesiveness, Teacher Support, Involvement, Investigation, Task Orientation, Cooperation and Equity) and two TAM scales (Perceived Usefulness and Perceived Ease of Use). It also includes four demographic elements: Age, Gender, Prior Experience and English as a first language. The central proposition of the ETAM is that environmental factors are an important consideration in the evaluation of software acceptance. To evaluate this model, student and lecturer attitudes towards a specific software package, Salsa, were studied. The context of the study was the use of educational software in ten computing classes in tertiary programmes of study in a large metropolitan polytechnic in Auckland, New Zealand. Both lecturer and student perceptions were investigated. To gather lecturer perceptions, semi‐structured interviews were carried out with the lecturers teaching the courses. The semi‐structured interviews were analysed qualitatively and thematic analysis was used. To gather student perceptions, a purpose‐written questionnaire was developed. The student perspective was analysed quantitatively. A total of 208 student responses were collected. The analysis involved formal statistical testing of a number of hypotheses. To determine the unique contributions of each component, path analysis and multiple regressions were used. The major findings were that all the WIHIC constructs have a positive correlation with Perceived Usefulness and Perceived Ease of Use. The unique contributions of each of the WIHIC constructs in the ETAM model were identified. The two major contributors were: Task Orientation and Studying. Task Orientation explained 15% of the variance in the Perceived ii Usefulness and 11% of the variance in Perceived Ease of Use. This is a significant and a unique contribution of this study to identify that Task Orientation and Studying are major predictors in technology acceptance. This finding informs practitioners and allows them to use a shorter version of the questionnaire while still capturing the main influences of technology acceptance in the classroom. The main result of this study was a new model for technology acceptance the Educational Technology Acceptance Model (ETAM) designed for educational environments. The results of this study add to the body of knowledge of technology acceptance model (TAM) applications in educational settings. The study also adds new knowledge to the better understanding of educational environment constructs. The results of the study could benefit students by collecting information that helps them to make decisions on the future use of the software tool, and informs course designers in tertiary institutions about the usefulness of the technology and students’ attitudes towards technology acceptance. The results helps other practitioners make informed decisions on whether to offer the tool to students and how to get the best use from the tool, if used. The study adds to the body of knowledge around the interaction between technology and the classroom environment. It adds to the body of knowledge by gaining a better understanding of attitudes toward software acceptance in an educational setting. iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to thank my mentor, Professor Darrell Fisher, for his help and guidance during my study. His positive attitude and quiet but constant encouragement were a source of motivation to carry on. He is, and will always be for me, a model of an honest, holistic educator who is able to inspire his students to be the best they can be. The kind of educator I would like to become. Thank you for showing me the way. I would like to thank my husband for his love, his kindness and support during my study. I am grateful for long hours he spent discussing and reading my work, and many valuable comments that he has made. Thank you for been there for me. I would like to thank my wonderful children for giving me so many days of their support, love and joy and equal amount of the distraction. Thank you for been who you are. I would like to dedicate this work to my late mother Marija Damjanovic (1921‐1980) for teaching me the love of books and respect for education. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS Abstract ........................................................................................................................ ii Acknowledgements ..................................................................................................... iv Table of Contents ......................................................................................................... v List of Tables ................................................................................................................ ix List of Figures .............................................................................................................. xi Chapter 1. Introduction ........................................................................................... 1 1.1. Background .................................................................................................... 1 1.2. Description of this study ................................................................................ 4 1.3. Objective and significance ............................................................................. 4 1.4. Overview of the thesis ................................................................................... 6 Chapter 2. Criteria for software acceptance ........................................................... 8 2.1. Motivational theories .................................................................................... 9 2.1.1. The Trait perspective ........................................................................... 10 2.1.2. The social‐cognitive perspective .......................................................... 14 2.1.3. The theory of reasoned action ............................................................. 20 2.1.4. Theory of Trying ................................................................................... 26 2.2. Technology Acceptance Model ................................................................... 28 2.2.1. Technology Acceptance Model TAM and TAM2 .................................. 29 2.2.2. Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology model (UTAUT) and UTAUT2. ....................................................................................................... 39 2.2.3. Technology Acceptance Model TAM3 ................................................. 41 2.3. Application and validation of TAM .............................................................. 45 2.4. Technology Acceptance Model use in education ........................................ 61 2.5. Chapter summary ........................................................................................ 64 v Chapter 3. Environmental influences .................................................................... 66 3.1 Introduction ................................................................................................. 66 3.2 Historical background of learning environment research .......................... 68 3.3 Development of learning environment Instruments .................................. 73 3.4 What Is Happening In This Class (WIHIC) instrument ................................. 83 3.5 Use of the WIHIC in learning environment research .................................. 85 3.6 Technology‐rich learning environment investigations ................................ 88 3.1.1. Introduction ......................................................................................... 88 3.1.2. Technology rich‐learning environment studies ................................... 89 3.1.3. Summary .............................................................................................. 94 3.7 Relevance to the study ................................................................................ 94 3.8 Chapter summary ........................................................................................ 95 Chapter 4. Development of the Technology Acceptance Model for Educational environment (ETAM) .................................................................................................. 97 4.1. The ETAM model ......................................................................................... 97 4.2. Theoretical analysis ................................................................................... 106 4.2.1. Technology acceptance constructs .................................................... 107 4.2.2. The environmental constructs ........................................................... 110 4.2.3. Personal factors axioms ..................................................................... 117 4.2.4. ETAM hypotheses .............................................................................. 122 4.3. Method ...................................................................................................... 124 4.4. Salsa software ............................................................................................ 129 4.5. Chapter summary ...................................................................................... 136 Chapter 5. Lecturer perspective .......................................................................... 137 5.1. Introduction ............................................................................................... 137 5.1.1. Method ............................................................................................... 138 vi 5.1.2. The instrument ................................................................................... 138 5.1.3. The sample ......................................................................................... 140 5.2. The analysis ............................................................................................... 140 5.3. The technology acceptance constructs ..................................................... 142 5.3.1. Perceived Usefulness ......................................................................... 144 5.3.2. Perceived Ease of Use ........................................................................ 152 5.4. The environmental constructs analysis ..................................................... 156 5.5. Demographics ............................................................................................ 165 5.6. Discussion .................................................................................................. 166 5.7. Chapter summary ...................................................................................... 170 Chapter 6. Student perspective ........................................................................... 173 6.1. Introduction ............................................................................................... 173 6.2. Method ...................................................................................................... 174 6.3. The instrument .......................................................................................... 175 6.4. Sample ....................................................................................................... 177 6.5. Screening ................................................................................................... 178 6.5.1. Measurement hypotheses ................................................................. 179 6.5.2. Differential item functioning by gender ............................................ 181 6.5.3. Differential item functioning by whether first semester of study or not 182 6.5.4. Differential item functioning by first language .................................. 183 6.5.5. Differential item functioning by prior experience ............................. 185 6.5.6. Differential item functioning by consent ........................................... 186 6.5.7. Differential item functioning by age group ........................................ 188 6.6. Results ....................................................................................................... 190 6.6.1. Summary of results ............................................................................ 203 vii 6.7. Path analysis .............................................................................................. 204 6.7.1. Background demographics ................................................................. 207 6.7.2. Demographic variables and the WIHIC .............................................. 210 6.7.3. ETAM path diagram ........................................................................... 214 6.8. Discussion .................................................................................................. 215 6.8.1. Hypotheses discussion ....................................................................... 215 6.8.2. ETAM (model) .................................................................................... 223 6.9. Chapter summary ...................................................................................... 225 Chapter 7. Conclusion .......................................................................................... 227 7.1. Introduction ............................................................................................... 227 7.2. Summary of the thesis ............................................................................... 228 7.3. Findings and significance of the study ...................................................... 232 7.4. Limitations and future work ...................................................................... 238 7.5. Concluding remarks ................................................................................... 240 References ................................................................................................................ 241 Appendix A ............................................................................................................... 272 Appendix B ............................................................................................................... 278 viii LIST OF TABLES Table 2.1. The Historical Development of the Technology Acceptance Model from 1989 to 2003 .............................................................................................................. 46 Table 2.2. Development of New Technology Acceptance Models from 2005‐2012 . 54 Table 2.3. The Technology Cluster With Their Associated Labels ............................. 61 Table 3.1. Differences between Personal and Class Form Wording of Items ........... 72 Table 3.2 Overview of Scales Contained in the 16 Classroom Environment Instruments ................................................................................................................ 81 Table 3.3. Scale Descriptions for the What Is Happening In this Class (WIHIC) Instrument .................................................................................................................. 84 Table 4.1. ETAM Hypotheses ................................................................................... 126 Table 5.1. Summary of the Qualitative Analysis Using the ETAM as Analytical Framework 168 Table 6.1. Student Sample ...................................................................................... 177 Table 6.2. Summary Statistics ................................................................................ 178 Table 6.3. Measurement Hypothesis Tests ............................................................. 180 Table 6.4. Differential Item Functioning by Gender ............................................... 181 Table 6.5. Differential Item Functioning by Whether First Semester of Study or Not .................................................................................................................................. 182 Table 6.6. Differential Item Functioning by First Language .................................. 183 Table 6.7. Differential Item Functioning by Prior Experience ................................. 186 Table 6.8. Differential Item Functioning by Consent ............................................... 187 Table 6.9. Differential Item Functioning by Age ...................................................... 188 Table 6.10. A One‐way ANOVA Comparison of Means between PEU Across Categories of Gender ................................................................................................ 197 Table 6.11. The Mean Endorsement of Perceived Ease of Use of Males and Females .................................................................................................................................. 197 Table 6.12. Kruskal‐Wallis test ............................................................................... 198 ix
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