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Title: The Curious Lore of Precious Stones Being a description of their sentiments and folk lore etc. etc. Author: George Frederick Kunz Release Date: September 26, 2018 [EBook #57978] Language: English Character set encoding: UTF-8 *** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK CURIOUS LORE OF PRECIOUS STONES *** Produced by Chris Curnow, Les Galloway and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images generously made available by The Internet Archive) Transcriber’s Notes Obvious typographical errors have been silently corrected. Variations in hyphenation and ligatures have been standardised but all other spelling and punctuation remains unchanged. Chapter and some section headings, together with dropped capitals are printed in a black-letter font in the original. This has not been replicated. Huntilite, in the index, possibly refers to Heliolite in the text, but it is not clear which is intended. The Curious Lore of Precious Stones LIPPINCOTT’S PRACTICAL BOOKS FOR THE ENRICHMENT OF HOME LIFE THE PRACTICAL BOOK OF DECORATIVE WALL-TREATMENTS. By Nancy McClelland. THE PRACTICAL BOOK OF LEARNING DECORATION AND FURNITURE. By Edward Stratton Holloway. THE PRACTICAL BOOK OF CHINAWARE. By Harold Donaldson Eberlein and Roger Wearne Ramsdell. THE PRACTICAL BOOK OF TAPESTRIES. By George Leland Hunter. THE PRACTICAL BOOK OF OUTDOOR FLOWERS. By Richardson Wright, Editor of House and Garden. THE PRACTICAL BOOK OF FURNISHING THE SMALL HOUSE AND APARTMENT. By Edward Stratton Holloway. THE PRACTICAL BOOK OF INTERIOR DECORATION. By Harold Donaldson Eberlein, Abbot McClure and Edward Stratton Holloway. THE PRACTICAL BOOK OF PERIOD FURNITURE. By Harold Donaldson Eberlein and Abbot McClure. Revised and Enlarged. THE PRACTICAL BOOK OF ORIENTAL RUGS. By G. Griffin Lewis. THE PRACTICAL BOOK OF AMERICAN ANTIQUES. By Harold Donaldson Eberlein and Abbot McClure. THE PRACTICAL BOOK OF ARCHITECTURE. By C. Matlack Price. THE PRACTICAL BOOK OF ITALIAN, SPANISH AND PORTUGUESE FURNITURE. By Harold Donaldson Eberlein and Roger Wearne Ramsdell. PHENOMENAL GEMS (GEMS EXHIBITING PHENOMENA) From the J. P. Morgan Collection, American Museum of Natural History, New York A list of the 16 stones is found here The Curious Lore of Precious Stones BEING A DESCRIPTION OF THEIR SENTIMENTS AND FOLK LORE, SUPERSTITIONS, SYMBOLISM, MYSTICISM, USE IN MEDICINE, PROTECTION, PREVENTION, RELIGION, AND DIVINATION. CRYSTAL GAZING, BIRTH-STONES, LUCKY STONES AND TALISMANS, ASTRAL, ZODIACAL, AND PLANETARY BY GEORGE FREDERICK KUNZ A.M., Ph.D., D.Sc. WITH 86 ILLUSTRATIONS IN COLOR, DOUBLETONE AND LINE PHILADELPHIA & LONDON J. B. Lippincott Company COPYRIGHT, 1913, BY J. B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY SIXTH IMPRESSION PRINTED IN UNITED STATES OF AMERICA WITH HEARTFELT APPRECIATION OF THE NOBLE SPIRIT THAT CONCEIVED AND FOUNDED THE MORGAN- TIFFANY COLLECTION OF GEMS AND THE MORGAN-BEMENT COLLECTIONS OF MINERALS AND METEORITES OF THE AMERICAN MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY, AND THE MORGAN COLLECTION OF THE MUSÉE D’HISTOIRE NATURELLE OF PARIS, AND WHOSE KINDLY ADVICE AND ENCOURAGEMENT HAVE DONE SO MUCH FOR THE PRECIOUS STONE ART, THIS VOLUME IS RESPECTFULLY DEDICATED TO THE MEMORY OF THE LATE J. PIERPONT MORGAN T Preface HE love of precious stones is deeply implanted in the human heart, and the cause of this must be sought not only in their coloring and brilliancy but also in their durability. All the fair colors of flowers and foliage, and even the blue of the sky and the glory of the sunset clouds, only last for a short time, and are subject to continual change, but the sheen and coloration of precious stones are the same to-day as they were thousands of years ago and will be for thousands of years to come. In a world of change, this permanence has a charm of its own that was early appreciated. The object of this book is to indicate and illustrate the various ways in which precious stones have been used at different times and among different peoples, and more especially to explain some of the curious ideas and fancies that have gathered around them. Many of these ideas may seem strange enough to us now, and yet when we analyze them we find that they have their roots either in some intrinsic quality of the stones or else in an instinctive appreciation of their symbolical significance. Through manifold transformations this symbolism has persisted to the present day. The same thing may be said in regard to the various superstitions connected with gems. Our scientific knowledge of cause and effect may prevent us from accepting any of the fanciful notions of the physicians and astrologers of the olden time; nevertheless, the possession of a necklace or a ring adorned with brilliant diamonds, fair pearls, warm, glowing rubies, or celestial-hued sapphires will to-day make a woman’s heart beat faster and bring a blush of pleasure to her cheek. Life will seem better worth living to her; and, indeed, this is no delusion, for life is what our thought makes it, and joy is born of gratified desire. Hence nothing that contributes to increasing the sum of innocent pleasures should be disdained; and surely no pleasure can be more innocent and justifiable than that inspired by the possession of beautiful natural objects. The author, who possesses what is believed to be the most comprehensive private library on this subject, has obtained many references from material which he has been gathering during the past twenty-five years. Many of the types exist in the collection of folk-lore precious stones exhibited at the World’s Columbian Exposition in 1893, and now in the Field Museum of Natural History in Chicago. Other types are drawn from the Morgan Collection exhibited at the Paris Expositions of 1889 and 1900, which, with additions, is now in Morgan Hall, in the American Museum of Natural History, New York City. Other prominent references are the collection of precious stones in the California Midwinter Memorial Museum, in Golden Gate Park, San Francisco; the Tiffany collection of precious stones, exhibited at the Atlanta Exposition of 1894, now in the National Museum in Washington; the collection exhibited at the Pan-American Exposition, and presented to the Musée d’Histoire Naturelle, in Paris, by the late J. Pierpont Morgan; the collection exhibited at the exposition held in Portland, Oregon, in 1905; and the collection of gems and precious stones exhibited at the Jamestown Exposition, 1907. All of these collections, either entirely or very largely, have been formed by the author. Some references to sentiment connected with precious stones are embodied in the little work, now in its 21st edition, entitled: “Natal Stones, Sentiments and Superstitions Associated with Precious Stones,” compiled by the writer, who has examined nearly all the principal collections in the United States, Europe, Mexico, Canada, and Asiatic Russia. For courtesies, information and illustrations, I am indebted to the following, to whom my thanks are due: Prof. Taw Sein Ko, Superintendent of the Archæological Survey, of Burma; Dr. T. Wada, of Tokyo, Japan; Dr. G. O. Clerc, President of the Société Ouralienne des Amis des Sciences Naturelles, Ekaterinebourg, Russia; Dr. Charles Braddock, late Medical Inspector to the King of Siam; Sir Charles Hercules Reed, Curator of Archæology, and Dr. Ernest A. Wallis Budge, Egyptologist, British Museum, London; A.W. Feavearyear, Esq., London; Dr. Salomon Reinach, Director of the Archaælogical Museum of St. Germain-en-Laye, France; Prof. Giuseppe Belucci, of the University of Perugia; Dr. Peter Jessen, Librarian of the Kunstgewerbe Museum, of Berlin; Miss Belle DaCosta Green; Dr. Frederick Hirth, Chinese Professor, Columbia University, New York; Dr. Clark Wissler, Curator of Archæology, Dr. L.P. Gratacap, Curator of Mineralogy, American Museum of Natural History; Dr. Berthold Laufer, Oriental Archæologist, and Dr. Oliver C. Farrington, Curator of Geology and Mineralogy, Field Museum of Natural History, Chicago; Hereward Carrington, Esq., Psychist, New York; Dr. W. Hayes Ward, Archæologist and Babylonian Scholar; Mrs. Henry Draper, New York; H.W. Kent, Esq., Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City; Consul General Moser, Colombo, Ceylon; W.W. Blake, Mexico City, who has done so much to encourage Mexican archæological investigation; the late A. Damour, of Paris, the great pioneer of mineralogical archæology; the late Dr. A. B. Meyer, of Dresden, who, more than anyone else, proved that the Nephritfrage or the jade question was to be solved by chemical and mineralogical investigation; the late Rajah Sir Sourindro Mohun Tagore, of Calcutta; and Dr. A.M. Lythgoe, Egyptologist, Metropolitan Museum of Art. G. F. K. September, 1913. v vi vii viii Contents CHAPTER PAGE I. Superstitions and their Sources 1 II. On the Use of Precious and Semi-precious Stones as Talismans and Amulets 19 III. On the Talismanic Use of Special Stones 51 IV. On the Use of Engraved and Carved Gems as Talismans 115 V. On Ominous and Luminous Stones 143 VI. On Crystal Balls and Crystal Gazing 176 VII. Religious Uses of Precious Stones, Pagan, Hebrew, and Christian 225 VIII. On the High-priest’s Breastplate 275 IX. Birth-stones 307 X. Planetary and Astral Influences of Precious Stones 338 XI. On the Therapeutic Use of Precious and Semi-precious Stones 367 ix Illustrations COLOR PLATES PAGE Phenomenal Gems (Gems Exhibiting Phenomena) Frontispiece. Maharaja Runjit Singh, with Pearls and Gems 42 Cardinal Farley’s Ring,—Sapphire with Diamonds 104 Gems from the Morgan-Tiffany Collection 107 Self-prints of Diamonds, Showing Phosphorescence 170 Cross, Attached as Pendant to the Crown of the Gothic King Reccesvinthus (649-672 a.d.) 293 DOUBLETONES Rock-crystal Amulet set in Silver 10 Rock-crystal Placque, Ancient Mexican 10 Necklaces from Egypt. First Century 20 Mosaics of Turquoise and Enamelled Carnelian Beads 26 Necklaces from Egypt 37 African Agate Charms 54 Amber Ornaments 58 Chalcedony Votive Charm from Mexico 65 Curious Altar of Powalawa Indians of Arizona 65 Kabyle Jewelry 68 Jasper Pendant 93 Piece of Natural Loadstone for Medicinal Purposes 93 Aragonite Pendant 93 Obsidian Mask, from the Fayoum, Egypt 99 Turquoise Necklace, Thibet 110 Phœnician Scarab, with Engraved Scorpion 123 Ancient Babylonian Cylinder Impression, Bearing Figures of the God Nebo and a Worshipper, and Symbols of Sun and Moon 123 A Small Jade Celt Engraved with Gnostic Inscriptions in the Fourth Century 123 Moss Agate Mocha Stones, Hindoostan 132 Agates Used as Votive Charms and Set in Rings 149 Rock-crystal Ball Penetrated by Crystals of Rutile 176 Glass Ball, Perforated and Mounted in Metal 183 Ball of Jet, Perforated and Mounted in Metal 183 Eye Agate, Showing a Number of Circular Markings 183 Dr. Dee’s Shew Stone 190 Obsidian Mirror, with Native Textile String 190 Rock-crystal Spheres and Natural Cross 196 Babylonian Cylinders and Persian Beads 204 Rock-crystal Spheres with Japanese Mountings 209 Crystal Ball, Supported by Bronze Dragon 217 Method of Grinding Crystal Balls and Other Hard Stone Objects in Germany and France 219 Japanese Method of Chipping, Grinding and Polishing Rock-crystal Balls 219 Rock-crystal Sphere with Three-figure Mounting 221 “Phantom Crystal” of Quartz (Rock-crystal) 224 Rock-crystal Balls 224 Amber Heart-shaped Amulet 228 An Inscribed Scarab of the Type known as a Heart-scarab 228 Babylonian Axe Head 233 Mani Málá, or Chain of Gems 242 Sculptured Jade Mountain Weighing 640 lbs 245 Votive Adze of Jadeite from Mexico 249 Statue of a Maori Warrior, by Sigurd Neandross 254 xi xii Jadeite Celts 264 Staurolite Crystals (Fairy Stones) 271 Frontispiece of the “Vestitus Sacerdotum Hebræorum,” of Johann Braun, Amsterdam, 1680 275 Silver Cross with Quartz Cat’s-eye 286 Specimens of Chiastolite (Lapis Crucifer) 286 Facsimile of the Betrothal Ring of the Virgin in the Cathedral of Perugia 317 Moss Agates 330 The Figures of the Planets with their Significant Stones 332 The Zodiacal Stones with their Signs 343 Necklaces (First Century, a.d., and Ancient Persian) 346 Statuette Known as that of Sainte Foy, in the Abbey-church at Conques, Dept. Aveyron, France 356 Inscription on a Small Piece of Limestone, in Cursive Egyptian Writing—an Ancient Prescription 368 Necklaces—(1) Carnelian Beads; (2) Onyx Beads 370 Facsimile Page of Italian Vellum Manuscript Treatise of the Virtues of Gems 374 Initials from the Lapidario De Alfonso X 377 LINE CUTS IN TEXT Title Page of the First Edition of the Poetical Treatise on Precious Stones by Marbodus, Bishop of Rennes, Printed in Friburg, 1531 15 Title Page of the First Edition of the Greek Treatise by St. Epiphanius on the Gems of the Breastplate, with a Latin Version 16 Title Page of One of the Earliest Treatises on Precious Stones Published in England 17 Pearl Dealer 42 An Air-ship of 1709 53 The Tree that Exudes Amber 56 A Practical Test of the Virtues of the Bloodstone to Prevent Nose-bleed 60 Carnelian Seal, worn by Napoleon I, Napoleon III, and the Prince Imperial 64 Specimen Page of Italian Manuscript of Fourteenth Century 77 Obsidian Mirror, from Oaxaca, Mexico. Now in Trocadéro Museum, Paris 99 Rock-crystal Skull, Ancient Mexican 100 Engraved Heliotrope 124 Engraved Red Jasper 124 Gnostic Gems 127 Antique Jade Celt Converted into a Gnostic Talisman 129 Monogram of the Name of Christ Engraved on an Onyx Gem 136 Two Gold Rings Set with Engraved Onyx Gems 138 The “Orphanus Jewel” in the German Imperial Crown 147 Title Page of Robert Boyle’s Work on the Origin and Virtues of Gems 169 Title Page of a Group of Treatises by Various Authors, Collected and Edited by Conrad Gesner at Zürich in 1565 258 The Hebrew High-priest Attired with his Vestments 279 The Breastplate Unfolded, I, II; Ephod with Breastplate Folded and Attached, III 281 Title Page of the Edition of Marbodus on Precious Stones, Published in Cologne, 1539 290 Carnelian, Engraved with the Zodiacal Signs, Taurus, Leo and Capricorn; in the Centre a Six-rayed Star, the Form of one of these Rays Denoting a Comet 322 xiv F The Curious Lore of Precious Stones I Superstitions and Their Sources ROM the earliest times in man’s history gems and precious stones have been held in great esteem. They have been found in the monuments of prehistoric peoples, and not alone the civilization of the Pharaohs, of the Incas, or of the Montezumas invested these brilliant things from Nature’s jewel casket with a significance beyond the mere suggestion of their intrinsic properties. The magi, the wise men, the seers, the astrologers of the ages gone by found much in the matter of gems that we have nearly come to forgetting. With them each gem possessed certain planetary attractions peculiar to itself, certain affinities with the various virtues, and a zodiacal concordance with the seasons of the year. Moreover, these early sages were firm believers in the influence of gems in one’s nativity,—that the evil in the world could be kept from contaminating a child properly protected by wearing the appropriate talismanic, natal, and zodiacal gems. Indeed, folklorists are wont to wonder whether the custom of wearing gems in jewelry did not originate in the talismanic idea instead of in the idea of mere additional adornment. The influence exerted by precious stones was assumed in medieval times without question, but when the spirit of investigation was aroused in the Renaissance period, an effort was made to find a reason of some sort for the traditional beliefs. Strange as it may seem to us, there was little disposition to doubt that the influence existed; this was taken for granted, and all the mental effort expended was devoted to finding some plausible explanation as to how precious stones became endowed with their strange and mystic virtues, and how these virtues acted in modifying the character, health, or fortunes of the wearer. When the existence of miracles is acknowledged, there will always be a tendency to regard every singular and unaccountable happening as a miracle; that is to say, as something that occurs outside of, or in spite of, the laws of nature. We even observe this tendency at work in our own time. As regards visual impressions, for instance, if a child of lively imagination enters a half-lighted room and sees a bundle of clothes lying in a corner, the indistinct outline of this mass may be transformed to his mind into the form of a wild animal. The child does not really see an animal, but his fear has given a definite outline and character to the indefinite image printed on the retina. The writer has always sought to investigate anything strange and apparently unaccountable which has been brought to his notice, but he can truly say he has never found the slightest evidence of anything transcending the acknowledged laws of nature. Still, when we consider the marvellous secrets that have been revealed to us by science and the yet more wonderful things that will be revealed to us in the future, we are tempted to think that there may be something in the old beliefs, some residuum of fact, susceptible indeed of explanation, but very different from what a crass scepticism supposes it to be. Above all, the results of the investigations now pursued in relation to the group of phenomena embraced under the designation of telepathy,—the subconscious influence of one mind over an absent or distant mind,—and the wireless transmission of power in wireless telegraphy and telephony, may go far to make us hesitate before condemning as utterly preposterous many of the tales of enchantment and magical influence. If the unconscious will of one individual can affect the thoughts and feelings of another individual at a great distance and without the intervention of any known means of communication, as is confidently asserted by many competent investigators in the domain of telepathy, their claims being supported by many strange happenings, perhaps the result of coincidence, but possibly due to the operation of some unknown law, does this not give a color of verity to the statements regarding the ancient magicians and their spells? Auto-suggestion may also afford an explanation of much that is mysterious in the effects attributed to precious stones, for if the wearer be firmly convinced that the gem he is wearing produces certain results, this conviction will impress itself upon his thought and hence upon his very organism. He will really experience the influence, and the effects will manifest themselves just as powerfully as though they were caused by vibrations or emanations from the material body of the stone. All this may serve to explain the persistence of the belief in magic arts. A few hundred years ago, a Hungarian woman was accused of having murdered two or three hundred young girls, and at her trial she confessed that her object was to use the blood of her victims to renew her youth and beauty, for the blood of innocent virgins was supposed to have wonderful properties. In some parts of England today there is a superstitious belief that an article of clothing worn by a person, or anything he has habitually used, absorbs a portion of his individuality. Therefore, it sometimes happens that a handkerchief, for instance, will be stolen and pinned down beneath the waters of a stream on a toad, the pins marking the name of the enemy, the belief being that as this cloth wastes away, so will the body of him who had worn it. In medieval and later times this was the common practice of the sorcerers, although they frequently composed a wax figure rudely resembling the person against whom the spell was directed, and then thrust pins into this figure or allowed it to melt away before a slow fire. The enchantment of the sorcerer was supposed to have caused some essence of the personality to enter into the image, and therefore the living and breathing being felt sympathetically the effects of the ill-treatment inflicted upon its counterfeit. The persistence of the most cruel and unnatural practices of old-time sorcery is illustrated by the fact that only a few years ago, in the island of Cuba, three women were condemned to death for murdering a white baby so as to use the heart and blood as a cure for diseases. Four other women were sentenced to from fourteen to twenty years’ imprisonment as accomplices. When such things happen in Cuba, it is not surprising that in half-civilized Hayti similar crimes are committed. Here the Voodoo priests and priestesses, papalois and mamalois (papa-kings and mama-queens) require from time to time a human sacrifice to appease their serpent-god. One strange case is related where a stupefying potion, inducing a state of apparent death, was secretly administered to a sick man. When the attending physician pronounced him dead, he was duly interred; but, two days after, the grave was found open and the body had disappeared. The Voodoo worshippers had carried the man away so as to revive him and then sacrifice him at their fearful rites. In a poem addressed to Marguerite de Valois,—“La Marguerite des Marguerites,” as she was called,—by Jean de la Taille de Bondaroy,1 we read of the diamond that it came from gold and from the sun. But we are told that not only are precious stones endowed with life, they also are subject to disease, old age, and death; “they even take offence if an injury be done to them, and become rough and pale.” The sickness of the pearl has been a theme for centuries, and in many cases is only fancied. It is but a subterfuge or deception for a lady to remark that her pearls have sickened; by referring to this sickness, her friends are naturally led to believe that at one time her pearls were fine, perfect ones, when in reality they may never have been so. The opinion given in 1609, by Anselmus De Boot, court physician to Rudolph II of Germany, regarding the power inherent in certain precious stones,2 embodies the ideas on this subject held by many of the enlightened minds of that period. 1 2 3 4 5 The supernatural and acting cause is God, the good angel and the evil one; the good by the will of God, and the evil by His permission.... What God can do by Himself, He could do also by means of ministers, good and bad angels, who, by special grace of God and for the preservation of men, are enabled to enter precious stones and to guard men from dangers or procure some special grace for them. However, as we may not affirm anything positive touching the presence of angels in gems, to repose trust in them, or to ascribe undue powers to them, is more especially pleasing to the spirit of evil, who transforms himself into an angel of light, steals into the substance of the little gem, and works such wonders by it that some people do not place their trust in God but in a gem, and seek to obtain from it what they should ask of God alone. Thus it is perhaps the spirit of evil which exercises its power on us through the turquoise, teaching us, little by little, that safety is not to be sought from God but from a gem. In the next chapter of his work, De Boot, while extolling the remedial power of a certain group of stones, insists upon the falsity of many of the superstitions regarding these objects.3 That gems or stones, when applied to the body, exert an action upon it, is so well proven by the experience of many persons, that any one who doubts this must be called over-bold. We have proof of this power in the carnelian, the hematite, and the jasper, all of which when applied, check hemorrhage.... However, it is very necessary to observe that many virtues not possessed by gems are falsely ascribed to them. Paracelsus, the gifted and brilliant thinker, scientist, and, we must probably add, charlatan of the sixteenth century, whose really extraordinary mental endowment was largely wasted in the effort to impress his followers with the idea that he had a mystic control over supernatural agencies, was the owner of a talismanic jewel which he asserted to be the dwelling-place of a powerful spirit named “Azoth.” Some old portraits of the philosopher, or pseudo-philosopher, figure him wearing this jewel, in whose virtues we may fairly doubt that he himself believed, but which furnished part of the paraphernalia be freely employed to gain influence over the credulous.4 The following passage from the “Faithful Lapidary” of Thomas Nicols,5 who wrote in the middle of the seventeenth century, illustrates the prevailing opinion in England at that time as to the virtues of precious stones: Perfectionem effectûs contineri in causa. But it cannot truly be so spoken of gemms and precious stones, the effects of which, by Lapidists are said to be, the making of men rich and eloquent, to preserve men from thunder and lightning, from plagues and diseases, to move dreams, to procure sleep, to foretell things to come, to make men wise, to strengthen memory, to procure honours, to hinder fascinations and witchcrafts, to hinder slothfulness, to put courage into men, to keep men chaste, to increase friendship, to hinder difference and dissention, and to make men invisible, as is feigned by the Poet concerning Gyges ring, and affirmed by Albertus and others concerning the ophthalmius lapis, and many other strange things are affirmed of them and ascribed to them, which are contrary to the nature of gemms, and which they as they are materiall, mixt, inanimate bodies neither know nor can effect, by the properties and faculties of their own constitutions: because they being naturall causes, can produce none other but naturall effects, such as are all the ordinary effects of gemms: that is, such effects as flow from their elementary matter, from their temper, form and essence; such as are the operations of hot and cold, and of all the first qualities, and all such accidents as do arise from the commixtion of the first qualities: such as are hardnesse, heavinesse, thicknesse, colour, and tast. These all are the naturall faculties of gemms, and these are the known effects of the union of their matter, and of the operation of the first qualities one upon another. The long-continued concentration of vision on an object tends to produce a partial paralysis of certain functions of the brain. This effect may be noted in the helplessness of a bird when its gaze is fixed upon the glittering eyes of a serpent, or in the unwilling obedience yielded by a lion or some other wild animal when forced to look into the intent eyes of its trainer. In the same way those who gaze for a long time and without interruption on a crystal or glass ball, on an opal, a moonstone, a sapphire, or a cat’s-eye, may become partially hypnotized or even fall into a profound sleep. The condition induced, whether it be that of semi-trance, of hypnotism, or simply due to the imaginative workings of the brain, is believed to give an insight into the future. This hypnotic effect is probably caused by some gleam or point of light in the stone, attracting and fixing the beholder’s gaze. The moonstone, the star sapphire, and the cat’s-eye are all gems which possess a moving light, a moving line, or three crossed lines, and they are believed by the Orientals to be gems of good luck. Indeed, it is supposed in the East that a living spirit dwells within these stones, a spirit potent for good. Superstitious fancies bear the same relation to truth that the shadow of a form does to the form itself. We know that the shadow has no substantial existence, and yet we know equally well that it is cast by some real body; in the same way we may be sure that, however foolish a superstition may appear to be, it has some foundation in fact. Indeed, superstition is associated with the highest attribute of the human mind,—imagination. The realities about us gain much of their charm from sentiment, and all that is great in art and literature owes its being to the transforming energy of pure imagination. Morbid imagination, on the other hand, distorts and degrades the impressions it receives and produces only unlovely or ignoble forms and ideas. Sentiment may best be expressed as the feeling of one who, on a warm summer’s day, is rowing along a shady brook or resting in some sylvan dell, with nothing to interfere with his tranquil mood and nothing to spur him on to action; thus he has only suggestions of hope and indulges in rosy views of life. Reality, on the other hand, may be likened to a crisp winter’s morning when one is filled with exhilaration, conscious of the tingle of the cold, but comfortable in the knowledge of wearing a tightly-buttoned garment which will afford protection should the elements become disturbing. Superstition, lastly, can be said to resemble a dark, cold, misty night, when the moon is throwing malevolent shadows which are weird and distorted, while the cold seems to seize one by the throat and arouse a passionate desire to free one’s self from its grip in some way, to change a horrible nightmare into a pleasant dream. In the early part of the last century a series of very interesting experiments designed to demonstrate the effects produced upon a sensitive subject by the touch of precious stones and minerals, were made in the case of the “Seeress of Prevorst,” Frederike Hauffe (b. 1801), a woman believed to possess remarkable clairvoyant powers.6 When pieces of granite, porphyry, or flint were placed in her hand, she was not affected in any way. The finest qualities of fluorspar, on the other hand, had a marked action, relaxing the muscles, causing diarrhœa, and producing a sour taste in the mouth; occasionally a somnambulistic state was induced. This latter condition was also produced by Iceland spar and by the sapphire. While the substances so far noted depressed the vital energy, sulphate of barium stimulated the muscles, produced an agreeable warmth of the body, and made the subject feel as though she could fly through the air. If the application of this material was long continued, the pleasurable sensation found expression in laughter. In the case of witherite, a carbonate of barium, this effect was produced to an even greater degree, for if water in which this mineral had been dipped were swallowed, spasms of laughter resulted. 6 7 8 9 10 Rock-crystal also was found to possess a strongly stimulating influence, for if put in the hand, it aroused the subject from a half-slumber, and if placed on the pit of the stomach, it had the power to awaken the seeress from a somnambulistic trance, while at the same time an aromatic odor was diffused around. When, however, the application was continued for some time, the muscles stiffened, until finally an epileptic state ensued. Indeed, the rigidity produced was so great that the limbs resisted all attempts to bend them. The same effect, but in a much less degree, was caused by glass, even by looking at it, or by the tones emitted by a glass object when struck. All colorless silicates, the diamond, and even gypsum, had a similar effect, as did also heliotrope and basalt, either of which caused a bitter taste in the mouth. The most powerful action was that exerted by hematite, the oxide of iron in this substance inducing a kind of paralysis, with a sensation of inner chill; this condition could only be relieved by the application of a piece of witherite. Octahedrons of magnetite (loadstone) caused a sensation of heaviness and convulsive movements of the limbs, even when the material, wrapped up in paper, was brought near the subject. Spinel, in whose composition oxide of chromium enters, caused the same symptoms as loadstone, except that in this case the force seemed to exert itself from the hand upward along the arm, while with the loadstone the action was downward along the arm to the hand, owing to the attractive quality of this magnetic iron. Ruby called forth a sensation of coldness in the tongue, and rendered this member so heavy that only incoherent sounds could be emitted; the fingers and toes also became cold, and the body was agitated by a violent shivering; but to all these bad symptoms succeeded a sense of elasticity and well-being, not, however, without a vague fear that the stone might cause a renewal of the physical depression. When chrysoprase was used, chills and shivering resulted, beginning at the breast and spreading thence over the whole body. ROCK-CRYSTAL AMULET SET IN SILVER. Bohemian, tenth century. Field Museum of Natural History. ROCK-CRYSTAL PLACQUE, ANCIENT MEXICAN. Field Museum Collection, Chicago. We have touched upon the hypnotic influence exercised by gems, but there can be no doubt that the subject has not been as carefully studied as it deserves to be. That the hypnotic state can be induced by gazing fixedly upon a bright object held just above the eyes is a well-known fact, but quite probably a similar though not so pronounced effect results from gazing on a bright object just before the gazer’s eyes. In the case of colored precious stones, the effects of the various color-rays combine with the light effects and strengthen the impression upon the optic nerve. All this, however, concerns only the purely physical impression, but we know that very often the hypnotic state is produced by a mental impression, by the belief, or the fear, that the state will supervene. With precious stones as hypnotizing agents, the mental impression is widely different, for here the physical impression is heightened by the consciousness of the value and rarity of the material. The fascination that a fine set of jewels, with all their sparkle and color, exercises upon the mind of a woman who sees them in their glorious radiance on the neck, the arms, and the head of another woman, is not only due to the beauty of the spectacle, but is largely owing to the consciousness that they are rare and valuable objects and are perhaps eloquent witnesses of the power of love. A dash of envy sometimes serves to render the emotion more complex. The names of precious stones and semi-precious stones are frequently used as adjectives, and when so employed convey something more to the mind than do the corresponding adjectives of color. We may instance the following expressions: the “Emerald Isle” and “emerald meadows”; “sapphire seas” and “sapphire eyes”; “ruby wine,” “ruby lips,” and, in Shakespeare, “the natural ruby of your cheeks”; “coral lips” and “coral ears”; “pearly teeth” and “pearly skin”; “turquoise skies”; “amethystine locks” and, in Roman times, “amber hair.” In all these cases the name of the precious mineral is really used as a superlative of the adjective, suggesting the choicest variety of the color or shade. The phrases “hard as adamant” and “clear as crystal” show a similar use of the name of a precious or ornamental stone to express the highest grade of a given quality. Before the introduction of the “point” system in typography three of the grades of type bore the names of precious stones,—namely, “diamond type,” “agate type,” and “emerald type”; this latter designation is employed only in England, where “agate type” is called “ruby type.” Another size was denominated “pearl type.” A fanciful tale written not long ago treats of the practical inconveniences which would result, could such metaphorical expressions find a realization in fact.7 At the birth-feast of a certain princess, one of the fairies was not invited; she, nevertheless, made her appearance. After the other fairies had endowed the child with many good qualities, the neglected fairy said, “I will give her vanity, and her vanity shall change her beauty to the things it is said to resemble.” However, a friendly fairy came to the rescue, saying, “I will give her unselfishness, and by it she shall turn her beauty back to what she wishes it to be.” The result can easily be imagined. As the little princess grew up, those who wished to flatter her vanity spoke of her “teeth of pearl,” of her “golden hair,” of her “coral lips,” and of her “sapphire eyes.” Upon this her teeth changed to pearls, her hair to spun gold, her lips to coral, and her eyes to two magnificent sapphires. However, beautiful as these were, they did not grant the power of sight, so that the unhappy princess became blind. Not long after this a revolution deprived the king and queen of their throne and they were reduced to great poverty. In these straits the daughter sacrificed her “gold-hair” to relieve their wants, and immediately the spell was dissolved and she regained all her natural beauty. Shelley, who saw the world illumined by the rainbow hues of poetic fancy, wrote of “diamond eyes,” “an emerald sky,” “the emerald heaven of trees,” “the sapphire ocean,” “sapphire-tinted skies,” “the sapphire floods of interstellar air,” and “the chrysolite of sunrise.” For some reason, he does not use the ruby, a favorite stone with many poets, and psychologists might find in this a proof that red appeals less strongly to the idealist than do the other colors. The principal literary sources for the talismanic and therapeutic virtues attributed to ornamental stones may be divided into several groups, at first more or less independent of each other, but combined to a greater or lesser extent by later writers. Pliny gives, sometimes rather grudgingly, a number of superstitions current in his time, but the Alexandrian literature of the second, third, and fourth Christian centuries provides a much richer field for these superstitions, as shown in the Orphic poem “Lithica,” the “Cyrianides,” attributed to Hermes Trismegistus, the little treatise “On Rivers,” which bore the name of Plutarch, and last, but not least, in the work by Damigeron, which purported to be written by an Arab king named Evax, and sent by him to Tiberius or Nero. The influence exerted by the legends surrounding the stones of the high priest’s breastplate, and those chosen as foundation stones for the New Jerusalem, will be treated of elsewhere. In the seventh, eighth, and ninth centuries, a new literature on this subject made its appearance, probably in Asia Minor. Some of the 11 12 13 14 works were originally written in Syriac and later translated into Arabic. Others were composed in the latter language. This source was drawn upon for the production of the Lapidarium of Alfonso X, of Castile. This compilation, although dating in its present Spanish form from the thirteenth century, is based upon a much older original in “Chaldee” (Syriac?). There can be little doubt that many Hindu superstitions, no longer preserved for us in the literature of India, are reproduced in these Syrio-Arabic works, wherein we have also much that is of Alexandrian origin. This indeed is easily explained by history, for the Arabs, through their widely extended conquests, were led to absorb and amalgamate the data they secured, directly or indirectly, from the East and the West. While this literature was developing in the Mohammedan world, the tradition of Pliny and Solinus was transmitted to the Christian world of the seventh and succeeding centuries by Isidorus of Seville. This brings us to the remarkable poetical treatise on the virtues of precious stones by Marbodus, Bishop of Rennes, a work written at the end of the eleventh century, and often quoted as that of Evax; indeed, it purports to be by him and really contains a good part of the material composing the treatise of Damigeron or Evax. At the same time Marbodus drew freely upon Pliny, either directly or through Isidorus. For the Middle Ages this poem of Marbodus, already translated into Old French in the twelfth century, became known as the “Lapidario” par excellence, and furnished a great part of their material to medieval authors on this subject. Soon, however, extracts from the Arabic sources became available, and the whole mass of heterogeneous material was worked over and recombined in a variety of ways. Title page of the first edition of the poetical treatise on precious stones by Marbodus, Bishop of Rennes, printed in Friburg, 1531. This complex origin of the traditions explains their almost incomprehensible contradictions regarding the virtues assigned to the different stones, and also the fact that the qualities of one stone are frequently attributed to another one, so that, in the later works on this subject, it becomes quite impossible to present a satisfactory view of the distinguishing qualities and virtues of the separate stones. The habit of copying, without discrimination or criticism, whatever came to hand, and the aim to utilize as much of the borrowed material as possible, is scarcely less a characteristic of the seventeenth and eighteenth century writers than it is of those of a later date. This is in part an excusable and even an unavoidable defect, but it should be minimized as much as possible. Title page of the first edition of the Greek treatise by St. Epiphanius on the Gems of the Breastplate, with a Latin version. Edited and issued at Zürich in 1566 (1565) by Conrad Gesner. The treatise known under the title “Cyrianides” was, as we have noted, a product of the Alexandrian school. It was asserted to be the work of Hermes Trismegistus, the name given by the Greeks to the Egyptian god Thoth. Here we have a specimen of the species of magic known as litteromancy, or divination by means of the letters of the alphabet, since a stone, a bird, a plant, and a fish, each beginning with the same letter and signifying the four elements, are given for each of the twenty-four letters of the Greek alphabet. These four objects were to be grouped together to form a talisman, the bird being usually engraved on the stone, while a portion of the fish and of the plant was placed in the bezel of the ring in which the stone was to be set.8 Another, almost contemporary work, is the exceedingly curious and interesting treatise by St. Epiphanius, Bishop of Constantia, on the twelve gems on the “Breastplate of Judgment” of the high priest (Ex., xxviii, 15-21). This unique production is in the form of a letter addressed to Diodorus, Bishop of Tyre, and it is peculiarly valuable as the first of a long series of attempts to elucidate the question as to the identity of the twelve stones. The special virtues of each stone are also given, and this treatise may be regarded as the prototype of all the Christian writings on the symbolism of stones. A most interesting medieval treatise on the virtues of precious stones forms part of the De rerum natura of Thomas de Cantimpré (1201-1270), who was a pupil of Albertus Magnus and composed his work between 1230 and 1244. The Latin text has never been printed, but the book was translated into German by Konrad von Megenberg about 1350. Strange to say, the translator did not know the name of the writer and supposed when he began to translate the book that it was by Albertus Magnus. In many cases Thomas de Cantimpré merely copies the statements of older authors, but occasionally he gives us new material, or at least a new version of his originals. Title page of one of the earliest treatises on precious stones published in England. The renowned medieval philosopher and theologian, Albertus Magnus (1193-1280), for a short time Bishop of Ratisbon, and who later taught theology in the University of Paris and had the great St. Thomas Aquinas for a pupil, was not altogether free from the superstitious notions of his time, traces of which appear in certain of his numerous writings. Many years after his death some of this material was extracted from his works and, amplified by additions from other sources, was published under the title “Secrets des vertus des Herbes, Pierres et Bestes.” Of this there are two versions, one being an epitome of the other and termed respectively “Le Grand Albert” and “Le Petit Albert.” These little books were often reprinted and widely circulated, and eventually enjoyed great popularity among the French peasants. Indeed, even to the present day they may still be met with in out-of-the-way parts of rural France. Among literary deceptions one of the boldest was that practised in the early part of the seventeenth century by Ludovico Dolce. This writer made, in 1565, a literal translation into Italian of the “Speculum lapidum” of Camillo Leonardo, printed in Venice in 1502, and he had the courage to issue it as his own work, under the title “Trattato delle gemme chè produce la natura.” In view of the general familiarity with Latin among the better classes at that period, and the numerous fine libraries existing in Venice at the time, it seems most extraordinary that Dolce should have been successful in palming off this work as his own, but even to-day citations are made from Dolce’s “Trattato delle gemme” and from Leonardo’s “Speculum lapidum,” as though these were distinct works. 15 16 17 18 T II On the Use of Precious and Semi-Precious Stones as Talismans and Amulets HE use of precious stones in early times as amulets and talismans is shown in many ancient records, and several scholars have assumed that the belief in the magic efficacy of stones gave rise to their use as objects of personal adornment. It is, of course, very difficult either to prove or to disprove such a theory, for, even in the case of the oldest texts, we must bear in mind that they do not in the least represent primitive conditions, and that many thousands of years must have elapsed before a people could attain the grade of civilization necessary for the production of even the simplest literature. For this reason, certain investigators have preferred to seek for a solution of this problem in the customs and habits of the so-called uncivilized peoples of our own time; but we must not forget that conditions which seem to us very rudimentary are, nevertheless, the result of a long process of development. Even if this development was arrested many centuries or millenniums ago, it must have required a very considerable period of time to evolve such usages and conventions as are found even among the lowest races. Indeed, many uncivilized peoples have very complicated rules and observances, testifying to considerable thought and reflection. Fetichism in all its forms depends upon an imperfect conception of what constitutes life and conscious being, so that will and thought are attributed to inanimate objects. We can observe this in the case of animals and very young children, who regard any moving object as endowed with life. In the case of stones, however, it seems probable that those supposed to be the abode of spirits, good or evil, were selected because their natural form suggested that of some animal or of some portion of the human body. On the other hand, the wearing of what we call precious stones is more likely to have been due to the attraction exercised by bright colors upon the eye of the beholder and to the desire to display some distinguishing mark that would command attention and admiration for the wearer. This tendency runs through the higher animal kingdom, and its workings have served as a foundation for the theory of natural selection. It seems likely that we have here the true explanation of the motive for the gathering, preserving, and wearing of precious stones. Since these objects are motionless, they can scarcely have impressed the mind of primitive man with the idea that they were alive; they were not imposing by their mass, as were large stones, and their crystalline form scarcely figured any known living shape. Hence their chief, we may even say their only attraction was their color and brilliancy. What effect these qualities had upon the visual sense of primitive man may be safely inferred from the effect such objects produce upon infants. The baby has no fear in regard to a small and brilliantly colored object which is shown to it, but will eagerly put out its hand to seize, hold, and gaze upon a bright-colored stone. As the object is quite passive and easily handled, there is nothing to suggest any lurking power to harm, and therefore there is nothing to interfere with the pleasurable sensation aroused in the optic nerve by the play of color. In this naïve admiration of what is brilliant and colored, the infant undoubtedly represents for us the mental attitude of primitive man. 1. Necklace of rock-crystal and amethyst beads, transparent and translucent; very pale; from Egypt. First century. 2. Necklace of antique emeralds with gold beads and amazon stones; from Egypt. First century a.d. Probably the first objects chosen for personal adornment were those easily strung or bound together,—for instance, certain perforated shells and brilliant seeds; the softer stones, wherein holes could be easily bored by the help of the simplest tools, probably came next, while the harder gems must have been hoarded as pretty toys long before they could be adjusted for use as ornaments. Unquestionably, when these objects had once been worn, there was a disposition to attribute certain happenings to their influence and power, and in this way there arose a belief in their efficacy, and, finally, the conviction that they were...