The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Circle of Knowledge, by Various This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. Title: The Circle of Knowledge A Classified, Simplified, Visualized Book of Answers Author: Various Editor: Henry W. Ruoff Release Date: April 7, 2015 [EBook #48661] Language: English Character set encoding: UTF-8 *** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE CIRCLE OF KNOWLEDGE *** Produced by Brian Sogard, Harry Lamé and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net Please see the Transcriber’s Notes at the end of this text. Cover THE CIRCLE OF KNOWLEDGE ESSENTIAL FACTS OF EVERYDAY INTEREST IN NATURE, GEOGRAPHY, HISTORY, TRAVEL, GOVERNMENT, SCIENCE, INVENTION, EDUCATION, LANGUAGE, LITERATURE, FINE ARTS, PHILOSOPHY, RELIGION, INDUSTRY, BIOGRAPHY, HUMAN CULTURE, AND UNIVERSAL PROGRESS Easy to Read; Easy to Understand; Easy to Retain EDITOR-IN-CHIEF HENRY W. RUOFF, M.A., Litt.D., D.C.L. Editor of “The Century Book of Facts,” “The Capitals of the World,” “Leaders of Men,” “The Standard Dictionary of Facts,” “Masters of Achievement,” “The Volume Library,” “The Human Interest Library,” Etc. NUMEROUS TEXT ILLUSTRATIONS, MAPS TABLES, DUOTONE AND COLOR PLATES Exclusive Publishers for Canada and Newfoundland: THE JOHN A. HERTEL CO., Ltd. TORONTO, ONTARIO THE STANDARD PUBLICATION COMPANY BOSTON · WASHINGTON · CHICAGO 1917 Copyright, 1916, by THE STANDARD PUBLICATION COMPANY Copyright, 1917, by THE STANDARD PUBLICATION COMPANY All Rights Reserved A THE PUBLISHER’S PREFATORY ll books that are really worth while may be divided into four classes: first, books of information; second, books of inspiration; third, books of entertainment; fourth, books of excitement. By far the most important and practical of these classes is the first. The next in importance is the second; while rather trivial importance attaches to the third and fourth. THE CIRCLE OF KNOWLEDGE preëminently belongs to the first; but it is also designed to be both inspiring and entertaining. In its methods of presentation and in its editorship it typifies the modern, progressive spirit. Behind it lies a quarter of a century of successful editorial experience in selecting, adapting, and translating from highly technical treatises into simple, clear, understandable language the essentials as well as important sidelights of human knowledge. Its purpose is to answer the why, who, what, when, where, how, of the vast majority of inquiring minds, both young and mature, and to stimulate them to still further questionings. For it is only through this self-questioning process of the active mind that individual progress is possible. It is a fact of singular interest that every human being born into the world must independently go through practically the same educative processes from childhood to maturity. No matter how great the storehouse of the world’s past knowledge, or how marvelous the multitude and wonder of new discoveries in every department of human endeavor, each individual must acquire and learn for himself the selfsame facts of nature, history, science, literature, human culture, and everyday needs. In the present work special effort has been made to separate essentials from non-essentials; to distinguish human interest subjects of universal importance from those of minor concern; to present living facts instead of dead verbiage; and to bring the whole within the understanding of the average reader, without regard to age, in an acceptable and interesting form. The use of graphic outlines and tables; maps, drawings, and diagrams; the pictured works of great painters, sculptors, and architects—all combine in vizualizing and vitalizing both the useful and cultural knowledge of past and present. Indeed it is difficult to conceive how the purely pictorial interest of the work could be surpassed, with its veritable picture galleries illustrating the pageant of man’s progress; while the entire field of knowledge, from the measureless universe of space down to the simple fancy of a child, is sketched in its practical and essential outlines. Never has there been greater demand for books of knowledge of the present type. The busy reader or consulter soon tires of the diffuse book or set of books of interminable words. He wants conciseness, directness, reasonable compass, reliability, with up-to-date treatment of topics of permanent usefulness. Above all he wants something that appeals to the eye, and, through the interest of its form and subject matter, stimulates thought and the imagination. While simplicity and clearness are undoubted virtues, great care has been exercised to prevent them from degenerating into those childish forms, all too frequent in certain books, that rob real knowledge of almost its entire value. The best sources in the world of books have been laid under tribute in the preparation of this work, wisely supplemented by the wide experience of many eminent, practical, and progressive men and women—masters in their respective fields. It is earnestly hoped that this joint product will create for it a large sphere of usefulness and numerous satisfied readers. [iii] EDITOR’S ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The Editor desires to acknowledge his indebtedness to the following distinguished educators, scientists, writers and publicists for helpful suggestions, counsel, contributions, or revisions connected with the various departments of THE CIRCLE OF KNOWLEDGE. EDWIN A. ALDERMAN, LL.D., D.C.L. President University of Virginia; Editor-in-Chief Library of Southern Literature; author of Obligations and Opportunities of Citizenship, etc. E. BENJAMIN ANDREWS, D.D., LL.D. Educator and Historian; author of Institutes of General History, History of the United States, etc. JAMES B. ANGELL, LL.D. Late President University of Michigan; author of The Higher Education, Progress in International Law, etc. LIBERTY H. BAILEY, D.Sc., LL.D. Cornell University; author of Plant Breeding, Manual of Gardening, Cyclopedia of American Horticulture, etc. GEORGE F. BARKER, Sc.D., LL.D. University of Pennsylvania; author of Text-book of Chemistry, Text-book of Physics, etc. JOHN HENRY BARROWS, LL.D. Late President Oberlin College; author of Christian Evidences, Lectures, etc. CHARLES E. BESSEY, Ph.D., LL.D. University of Nebraska; author of Essentials of Botany, Botany for High Schools and Colleges, Elementary Botany, etc. FRANK W. BLACKMAR, Ph.D. University of Kansas; author of The Story of Human Progress, Outlines of Sociology, etc. DAVID J. BREWER, LL.D. Jurist, Publicist; Associate Justice U. S. Supreme Court; author of American Citizenship, The Twentieth Century, etc. ELMER ELLSWORTH BROWN, Ph.D., LL.D. President N. Y. University; former U. S. Commissioner of Education; author of The Making of our Middle Schools, Origin of American State Universities, etc. JAMES M. BUCKLEY, LL.D. Late editor New York Christian Advocate; author of Travels in Three Continents, The Land of the Czar, etc. JOHN W. BURGESS, Ph.D., LL.D. Columbia University; author of The Civil War and the Constitution, Political Science and Comparative Constitutional Law, etc. G. MONTAGUE BUTLER, M.E. Colorado School of Mines; Geologist for Colorado Geological Survey; author of A Pocket Handbook of Minerals, etc. JAMES McKEAN CATTELL, Ph.D. Editor Popular Science Monthly; author of School and Society, American Men of Science, etc. JOHN W. CAVANAUGH, C.S.C., LL.D. President Notre Dame University; author of Priests of Holy Cross, etc. EDWARD CHANNING, Ph.D., LL.D. Harvard University; author of History of United States, English History for American Readers, etc. SUSAN FRANCES CHASE, M.A., Ph.D. Department of Psychology and Literature, Buffalo State Normal School; author of Talks to Teachers, Outlines of Literature, etc. FOSTER D. COBURN, LL.D. Former Secretary Kansas Department of Agriculture; author of Swine Husbandry, Alfalfa, The Farmer’s Encyclopedia, etc. MAURICE F. EGAN, Litt.D., LL.D. U. S. Minister to Denmark; author of Lectures on English Literature, Modern Novelists, etc. CHARLES W. ELIOT, LL.D. President Emeritus Harvard University; author of Educational Reform, The Durable Satisfactions of Life, etc. EPHRAIM EMERTON, Ph.D. Harvard University; author of Synopsis of the History of Continental Europe, Mediæval Europe, etc. WILLIAM H. EMMONS, Ph.D. University of Minnesota; Geologist of Minnesota; author of numerous Reports and Technical Papers on Geology. ALCEE FORTIER, Litt.D., LL.D. Tulane University; author of History of French Literature, Louisiana Folk Tales, History of France, etc. ARTHUR L. FROTHINGHAM, Ph.D. Author of History of Sculpture, Mediaeval Art Inventions of the Vatican, etc.; co-author Sturgis, History of Architecture, etc. HORACE HOWARD FURNESS, Litt.D., LL.D. Shakespearean Scholar, Critic; author of The Variorum Shakespeare, etc. MERRILL E. GATES, LL.D., L.H.D. Ex-President Amherst College; author of Land and Law as Agents in Educating the Indian, International Arbitration, etc. JOHN F. GENUNG, D.D., Ph.D., Litt.D. Amherst College; author of Practical Elements of Rhetoric, Working Principles of Rhetoric, The Idylls of the Ages, etc. NICHOLAS PAINE GILMAN, L.H.D. Meadville Theological School; author of Profit Sharing, A Dividend to Labor, Methods of Industrial Peace, etc. WILLIAM W. GOODWIN, D.C.L., LL.D. Harvard University; author of Greek Grammar, Syntax of the Moods and Tenses of the Greek Verb, etc. EDWARD HOWARD GRIGGS, L.H.D. Lecturer, Educator; author of Moral Education, Self-Culture through the Vocation, etc. FRANK W. GUNSAULUS, D.D., LL.D. President Armour Institute; author of Paths to Power, Higher Ministries of Recent English Poetry, etc. G. STANLEY HALL, Ph.D., LL.D. President Clark University; author of Adolescence, Youth—Its Education, Regimen and Hygiene, etc.; editor of the American Journal of Psychology, The Pedagogical Seminary, etc. JOHN HAY, LL.D. Diplomat, Historian; co-author of Life of Abraham Lincoln, Castilian Days, etc. EMIL G. HIRSCH, L.H.D., LL.D., D.C.L. University of Chicago; minister of Sinai Congregation, Chicago; associate editor Jewish Encyclopedia; author of many articles on religion, etc. GEORGE HODGES, D.D., D.C.L. Dean Episcopal Theological School, Cambridge, Mass.; author of The Episcopal Church, The Pursuit of Happiness, etc. ARTHUR HOEBER, A.N.A. Art Critic New York Globe; Art Editor New Encyclopedia Britannica; author of Painting in the Nineteenth Century, etc. GEORGE S. HOLMESTED, K.C., Esq. Registrar of the High Court of Justice of Ontario; editor of the Ontario Mechanics Lien Act, etc. JAMES M. HOPPIN, D.D. Yale University; author of Great Epochs in Art History, Old England: Its Art, Scenery and People, etc. [iv] [v] WILLIAM WIRT HOWE, LL.D. Jurist, Lecturer; Justice Supreme Court of La.; author of Studies in Civil Law, etc. GEORGE HOLMES HOWISON, LL.D. University of California; author of Limits of Evolution, Philosophy: Its Fundamental Concepts and Methods, etc. THOMAS WELBURN HUGHES, LL.D. Dean Washburn College of Law; author of Hughes’ Cases on Evidence, Outline of Criminal Law, Commercial Law, etc. JOHN F. HURST, D.D., LL.D. Late Chancellor American University; author of History of the Christian Church, etc. WILLIAM DeWITT HYDE, D.D., LL.D. President Bowdoin College; author of The Teacher’s Philosophy In and Out of School, The Quest of the Best, etc. MORRIS JASTROW, Ph.D. University of Pennsylvania; author of Civilization of Babylonia and Assyria, The Study of Religion, etc. JEREMIAH W. JENKS, Ph.D., LL.D. New York University; author of The Trust Problem, Citizenship and the Schools, Government Action for Social Welfare, etc. DAVID STARR JORDAN, Ph.D., LL.D. Leland Stanford Jr. University; author of Science Sketches, Footnotes to Evolution, Animal Life, Food and Game Fishes of North America, etc. ARTHUR B. LAMB, Ph.D. Director Chemical Laboratory, Harvard University; translator of Haber’s Thermodynamics of Technical Gas Reaction; author of many papers on chemical subjects. JOSEPHUS N. LARNED, LL.D. Librarian and Historian; author of History for Ready Reference, Literature of American History, etc. HENRY C. LEA, LL.D. Historian; author of Studies in Church History, Superstition and Force, etc. SIMON LITMAN, Jur.D., Ph.D. University of Illinois; author of Trade and Commerce, and of many articles on commerce and industry. THOMAS H. MACBRIDE, Ph.D., LL.D. Ex-President Iowa State University; author of Textbook of Botany, etc. OTIS T. MASON, Ph.D., LL.D. Ethnologist, Scientist; author of Origin of Inventions, Woman’s Share in Primitive Culture, etc. HUGO MÜNSTERBERG, M.D., Ph.D., LL.D., Harvard University; author of Psychology and the Teacher, The Eternal Values, American Problems, etc. CHARLES W. NEEDHAM, LL.D. Educator, Lawyer; Ex-President George Washington University; associate counsel Interstate Commerce Commission; etc. THOMAS NELSON PAGE, Litt.D., LL.D. Lawyer, Diplomat, Novelist; U. S. Ambassador to Italy; author of Social Life in Old Virginia, Robert E. Lee: Man and Soldier, etc. JOHN K. PAINE, Mus.D. Harvard University; Musician, Composer; author of Realm of Fancy, Song of Promise, etc. GEORGE H. PALMER, Litt.D., LL.D. Harvard University; author of Self-Cultivation in English, The Teacher, Trades and Professions, etc. HORATIO W. PARKER, Mus.D. Yale University; Composer; author of the operas Mona, Fairyland, and much other music. HARRY THURSTON PECK, Ph.D., L.H.D. Co-editor New International Encyclopedia, editor of Harper’s Classical Dictionary, etc. JOHN W. POWELL, Ph.D., LL.D. Late Chief of Bureau of American Ethnology; author of Studies in Sociology, The Cañons of the Colorado, etc. IRA REMSEN, Ph.D., LL.D. Ex-President Johns Hopkins University; author of The Elements of Chemistry, Classical Experiments, etc. HENRY A. ROWLAND, Ph.D., LL.D. Late Professor Johns Hopkins University; author of Mechanical Equivalents of Heat, The Solar Spectrum, etc. BOHUMIL SHIMEK, C.E., M.Sc. Iowa State University; Botanist; author of numerous scientific papers. AINSWORTH R. SPOFFORD, LL.D. Late Librarian of Congress, Critic; editor of Library of Choice Literature, Book for All Readers, etc. ROBERT H. THURSTON, LL.D., D.Eng. Late Professor Cornell University; author of History of the Steam Engine, Materials of Construction, etc. CRAWFORD H. TOY, M.A., LL.D. Harvard University; author of The Religion of Israel, Judaism and Christianity, Quotations in the New Testament, etc. JOHN C. VAN DYKE, L.H.D. Rutgers College; author of New Guides to Old Masters, Studies in Pictures, etc. LESTER F. WARD, Ph.D., LL.D. Brown University; Scientist; author of Sociology and Economics, Pure Sociology, etc. ROBERT M. WENLEY, Ph.D., Litt.D., D.Sc., LL.D. University of Michigan; co-editor of The Dictionary of Philosophy, Dictionary of Theology, Religion and Ethics; author of Introduction to Kant, Contemporary Theology and Theism, etc. BENJAMIN I. WHEELER, Ph.D., LL.D. President University of California; author of Introduction to the History of Language, Life of Alexander the Great, etc. JOHN SHARP WILLIAMS, LL.D. Publicist, U. S. Senator; author of Permanent Influence of Thomas Jefferson on American Institutions, etc. OWEN WISTER, Litt.D., LL.D. Lawyer, Novelist, Critic; author of The Virginians, Biography of U. S. Grant, etc. ROBERT S. WOODWARD, D.Sc., LL.D. Director Carnegie Institute; Scientist; author of Higher Mathematics, etc. CARROLL D. WRIGHT, Ph.D., LL.D. Educator, Economist, Statistician; author of The Industrial Evolution of the United States, etc. G. FREDERICK WRIGHT, D.D., LL.D. Oberlin College; author of Man and the Glacial Period, Science and Religion, etc. GENERAL OUTLINE OF CONTENTS FIRST DIVISION: THE KINGDOMS OF NATURE BOOK OF THE HEAVENS THE UNIVERSE—THE SOLAR SYSTEM—Sun—Planets—Moon—Constellations—Stars—Comets—Meteors—Nebulæ—NEBULAR HYPOTHESIS—ECLIPSES—MYTHOLOGY OF THE CONSTELLATIONS—DICTIONARY OF SCIENTIFIC TERMS USED IN ASTRONOMY— STAR CHARTS AND MAPS. ⁂Books of Reference about the Heavens.—Campbell: Handbook of Practical Astronomy. Young: Elementary Astronomy, Manual of Astronomy, and General Astronomy. Ball: Story of the Heavens. Turner: Modern Astronomy. Newcomb: Popular Astronomy. Todd: A New Astronomy. Gregory: Vault of Heaven. BOOK OF THE EARTH OUR EARTH: ITS STRUCTURE AND SURFACE—GEOLOGICAL VIEW OF THE GROWTH OF THE EARTH—LAND FORMS OF THE WORLD—DISTRIBUTION OF LAND AND WATER—THE CONTINENTS—ISLANDS—MOUNTAINS—WATERS OF THE EARTH—FORMS OF WATER—RIVERS—WATERFALLS AND RAPIDS—LAKES—OCEANS—VOLCANOES—GEYSERS—ATMOSPHERE, CLIMATE, AND WEATHER—WINDS—CLOUDS—ATMOSPHERIC VAPOR, (Dew, Mist, Fog, Rain, Hail, Snow)—GLACIERS—ICEBERGS—DESERTS—NATURAL FORCES—MINERAL PRODUCTS—PRONOUNCING DICTIONARY OF SCIENTIFIC TERMS—MAPS AND CHARTS. ⁂Books of Reference about the Earth.—Dawson: Story of the Earth. Lyell: Principles of Geology. Geikie: Primer of Geology. Shaler: Sea and Land. Scott: Geology. Geikie: Text-Book of Geology. Chamberlin and Salisbury: Geology. Le Conte: Elements of Geology. Dana: Manual of Geology. Miers: Mineralogy. Dana: Text-Book of Mineralogy and System of Mineralogy (most comprehensive work in English). Brush and Penfield: Determinative Mineralogy. Rosenbusch-Iddings: Rock-Making Minerals. Hatch: Petrology. Butler: Pocket Handbook of Minerals. Mill: Realm of Nature. W. M. Davis: Physical Geography. Tarr: Physical Geography. BOOK OF THE VEGETABLE KINGDOM REALMS OF LIFE UPON THE EARTH—CHIEF DIVISIONS OF THE PLANT KINGDOM: (1) Cereals, Grasses and Forage Plants; (2) Kitchen Vegetables; (3) The Fruit Trees; (4) Fruit-bearing Shrubs and Plants; (5) Flowers and Other Ornamental Plants; (6) Wild Flowers and Flowerless Plants; (7) Trees of the Forest; (8) Fiber and Commercial Plants; (9) Poisonous Plants; (10) Some Wonders of Plant Life—BOTANICAL CLASSIFICATION OF PLANTS—SCIENTIFIC TERMS USED IN BOTANY, CLASSIFIED AND ILLUSTRATED—MAP OF THE PLANT KINGDOM. ⁂Books of Reference about the Vegetable Kingdom.—Gray: New Manual of Botany. Bessey: Synopsis of Plant Phyla. Small: Flora of the Southeastern United States. Coulter and Nelson: New Manual of the Botany of the Central Rocky Mountains. Gray: Synoptical Flora of North America. Britton: Manual of the Flora of the Northern States and Canada. Strasburger, Noll, Schenck and Karsten: Textbook of Botany. Pfeffer: Physiology of Plants. Ward: Disease in Plants. Schimper: Plant Geography. Campbell: Evolution of Plants. Green: Landmarks of Botanical History. Sach: History of Botany, 1530-1860. Green: History of Botany, 1860-1900. Baker: Elementary Lessons in Botanical Geography. BOOK OF THE ANIMAL KINGDOM SCIENTIFIC CLASSIFICATION OF ANIMALS—TABULAR VIEW OF REPRESENTATIVE ANIMAL TYPES—ANIMALS IN CLASSIFIED GROUPS: I. Wild Animals: 1. THE MAMMALS: (a) The Monkey Tribe; (b) Animals of Prey; (c) Gnawing Animals; (d) Hoofed Animals; (e) Toothless Animals; (f) Thick-Skinned Animals; (g) Pouched Animals; (h) Flying Animals; (i) The Seals; (j) The Whales. 2. THE BIRDS: (a) Birds of Prey; (b) Climbing Birds; (c) Singing Birds; (d) Wading Birds; (e) Swimming Birds; (f) Running Birds; (g) Game Birds. 3. THE REPTILES: Lizards—Chameleons—Snakes—Crocodiles—Tortoises— Turtles. 4. AMPHIBIANS: Frogs—Toads—Salamanders. 5. THE FISHES: (a) Bony Fishes; (b) Cartilaginous Fishes; (c) Armored Fishes; (d) Lungfishes. 6. THE MOLLUSCS: Snails—Cuttlefish—Squids—Octopus—Tusk Shells—Bivalves—Oysters. 7. JOINTED-LIMBED ANIMALS: Crabs—Lobsters—Scorpions—Spiders—Insects—Grasshoppers. 8. BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS: Straight-Winged Insects—Ants and Bees—Flies. 9. STARFISHES AND SEA-URCHINS. 10. SIMPLEST FORMS OF LIFE. II. Domesticated Animals: 1. DOMESTICATED MAMMALS: Alpaca—Ass—Camel—Cat—Cattle—Dog—Elephant—Gayal—Goat—Guinea Pig—Horse—Llama—Rabbit—Reindeer—Sheep—Swine—Yak—Zebu. 2. DOMESTICATED BIRDS: Canary—Chickens or Fowls—Guinea—Goose—Ostrich—Parrot—Peacock—Pigeon—Swan—Turkey. 3. DOMESTICATED INSECTS: Bee—Cochineal—Silkworm Moth. III. Pronouncing Dictionary of Scientific Terms concerning Animals. ⁂Books of Reference about Animals.—Rolleston: Forms of Animal Life. Huxley: Anatomy of Invertebrated Animals and Anatomy of Vertebrated Animals. Lankester: Treatise on Zoölogy. Parker and Haswell: Text-Book of Zoölogy. Kingsley: The Standard Natural History and Elements of Comparative Zoölogy. Newton: A Dictionary of Birds. Headley: The Structure and Life of Birds. Wilson: American Ornithology. Audubon: Ornithological Biography. Coues: Key to North American Birds. Chapman: Handbook of Birds of East North America. Bendire: Life Histories of North American Birds. Comstock: Insect Life. Packard: Text-Book of Entomology and Guide to Study of Insects. Howard: The Insect Book. Beddard: Text-Book of Zoögeography. A. Heilprin: The Geographical and Geological Distribution of Animals. SECOND DIVISION: THE KINGDOMS OF MAN BOOK OF RACES AND PEOPLES I . MAN AND THE HUMAN FAMILY —HOW MAN DIFFERS FROM OTHER ANIMALS —QUESTIONS OF MAN’S ORIGIN —HIS PRIMEVAL HOME—OLDEST EXTANT REMAINS OF THE HUMAN RACE —MAN’S ADVANCEMENT IN THE PRE-HISTORIC AGES —CHART SHOWING DEVELOPMENT OF THE RACE THROUGH THE AGES : (1) Dawn; Stone Age; (2) Old Stone Age; (3) New Stone Age; (4) Bronze Age; (5) Early Iron Age; (6) Late Iron Age; (7) Age of Letters. II. HOW THE RACES ARE CLASSIFIED —CHART OF PHYSICAL AND MENTAL RACE CHARACTERISTICS —GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES OF MANKIND—DICTIONARY OF THE HISTORICAL RACE GROUPS—COMPARATIVE CLASSIFICATION OF RACES AND PEOPLES. ⁂Books of Reference about Man.—Prichard: Researches into the Physical History of Mankind. Latham: Natural History of the Varieties of Man. Waitz: Anthropology. Darwin: The Descent of Man. Huxley: Essays and Man’s Place in Nature . Quatrefages: Classification des Races Humaines. Peschel: The Races of Man. Tylor: Anthropology. Lubbock: Prehistoric Times. Ratzel: History of Mankind. Keane: Ethnology and Man. Past and Present. Deniker: The Races of Man. Hutchinson: The Living Races of Mankind. BOOK OF NATIONS: Geographical, Historical, Descriptive I. Extinct Nations of the Past. CHIEF HISTORICAL PEOPLES: Egyptians—Babylonians—Assyrians—Hebrews—Phœnicians—Medes and Persians—Hindus—Greeks—Romans—PROGRESS OF HISTORICAL GEOGRAPHY AND DISCOVERY, B.C. 3800 TO THE PRESENT, WITH 16 MAPS—THE WORLD’S GREATEST EXPLORERS, B.C. 1400 TO 1917 A.D.—COMPARATIVE OUTLINE HISTORY OF ANCIENT NATIONS , B.C. 5000 TO 843 A.D.—DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY, HISTORY AND GOVERNMENT: The Spell of Egypt: Ancient and Modern—The Babylonian-Assyrian Empires—The Hebrews and the Holy Land—The Phœnicians: First Nation of Colonizers—The Medo-Persian Empire—The Greeks: Glory of the Ancient World—Rome: Mistress of the World—The Saracen Empire: Its Fanaticism, Art, and Learning—The Germanic Empire of Charlemagne. II. Living Nations of To-day. [vi] [vii] [viii] COMPARATIVE OUTLINE HISTORY OF MODERN NATIONS —TRANSITION PERIOD FROM THE ANCIENT TO THE MODERN— GEOGRAPHICAL AND HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE GREAT POWERS : Great Britain—France—Germany—Italy—Austria—Hungary—Russia—United States—Japan—THE LESSER MODERN NATIONS: In Europe, Spain and Portugal—Scandinavia (Norway, Sweden, Denmark)—The Netherlands—Switzerland—The Balkan States (Bulgaria, Roumania, Turkey, Greece, Servia); In Asia, China—Persia—Turkey; In America, Brazil—Argentina—Chile—Mexico—Canada. III. Tables and Charts. Including Great Wars, Great Battles, Dynasties, Rulers, Comparative Government, Biographical Facts Relating to the Presidents of the United States, Important Facts Concerning the States, etc. IV. Historical Charts and Tables, Maps and Plans. ⁂Books of Reference about the Nations.—HISTORY—Freeman: General Sketch. Haydn: Dictionary Dates. Rawlinson: Manual of Ancient History. Peck: Harper’s Classical Dictionary. Duncker: History of Antiquity. Brugsch-Bey: Egypt under the Pharaohs. Ewald: History of Israel. Allen: Hebrew Men and Times. Ranke: Universal History. Fisher: Outlines of Universal History. Mommsen: History of Rome. Gibbon: History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. Grote: History of Greece. Duruy: History of Rome. Merivale: General History of Rome. Lecky: History of European Morals. Hallam: Middle Ages. Guizot: History of Civilization. Sybel: History of the Crusades. Cox: The Crusades. Emerton: Mediaeval Europe; Introduction to the Study of the Middle Ages. Harding: Essentials in Mediaeval and Modern History. Gieseler: Church History. Alzog: Manual of Universal Church History. Clarke: Events and Epochs of Religious History. Fisher: History of the Reformation. Ranke: History of the Popes. Dyer: History of Modern Europe. Fyffe: History of Europe. Sybel: History of the French Revolution. Acton: Cambridge Modern History. Larned: Topical Outlines of Universal History. ATLASES.—Bartholomew: Atlas. Rand-McNally: Atlas; Century Dictionary and Atlas. Johnson: Historical Atlas. McClure: Historical Church Atlas. GAZETTEERS.—Blackie: Imperial Gazetteer. Longman: Gazetteer of the World. Lippincott: Gazetteer. Baedecker: Guides. GOVERNMENT AND LAW.—Aristotle: Politics. Bluntschli: Theory of the State. Burgess: Political Science and Comparative Constitutional Law. Freeman: Comparative Politics. Goodnow: Comparative Administrative Law. Lalor: Cyclopedia of Political Science. Locke: Treatises of Government. Maine: Popular Government. Montesquieu: Spirit of Laws. Morley: Ideal Commonwealths. Plato: Republic. Rousseau: The Social Contract. Sidgwick: Elements of Politics. Spencer: Man vs. the State. Wilson: The State. Bryce: The American Commonwealth. Hart: Actual Government. Robinson: Elements of American Jurisprudence. Thompson: English and American Encyclopedia of Law. Burdick: The Essentials of Business Law. Lowell: Governments and Parties in Continental Europe. Goodnow: Comparative Administrative Law. Dicey: The Law of the Constitution. BOOK OF LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE I. CLASSIFICATION OF LANGUAGES— WRITTEN AND SPOKEN ENGLISH—The Proper Use of Words, Sentences and Paragraphs—Figures of Speech—Poetics—Use of Capital Letters—Punctuation—Forms of Practical English Composition: Letters, Argument and Debate, News, Short Story, Fiction, Essay, Editorials, Reviews, Criticism, Addresses and Other Forms of Public Speech—ABBREVIATIONS—PRONOUNCING DICTIONARY OF CLASSIC WORDS AND PHRASES—PRONOUNCING DICTIONARY OF WORDS AND PHRASES FROM THE MODERN LANGUAGES. II. ENGLISH AND AMERICAN LITERATURE—OUTLINE CHARTS OF ENGLISH AND AMERICAN AUTHORS—DICTIONARY OF LITERARY ALLUSIONS: Famous Books, Poems, Dramas, Literary Characters, Plots, Pen Names, Literary Shrines and Geography, and other Miscellany—PRONOUNCING DICTIONARY OF MYTHOLOGY: Gods, Heroes, and Mythical Wonder Tales—CHART OF GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHS, their Origin, Relationship and Descent. ⁂Books of Reference.—LANGUAGE.—Sayce: Introduction to the Science of Language. Whitney: Language and the Study of Language. Paul: Principles of the History of Language. Muller: Science of Language. Skeat: Philosophy. Jesperson: Progress in Language, with Special Reference to English . Giles: Manual of Comparative Philosophy for Classical Students. Oertel: Lectures on the Study of Language. Sweet: Primer of Spoken English. Skeat: Etymological Dictionary of the English Language. Sweet: Grammar, Logical and Historical. Lewis: Applied English Grammar. Genung: Practical Elements of Rhetoric. Gummere: Poetics. Wendell: English Composition. Palmer: Self-Cultivation in English. Kittredge: Words and their Ways in English Speech. Trench: Study of Words. Fernald: Synonymns and Antonymns. LITERATURE.—Jevons: History of Greek Literature. Mahaffy: Greek Literature. Crutwell: History of Roman Literature. Fortier: History of French Literature. Robertson: History of German Literature. Garnett: Short History of Italian Literature. Symonds: Italian Renaissance. Horn: History of Scandinavian Literature and Jewish Encyclopedia. Morley: Library of English Literature. Brooke: History of English Literature. Ward: English Poets. Gosse: Short History of English Literature. Tyler: History of American Literature. Matthews: History of American Literature. Stedman: An American Anthology. Johnson: Elements of Literary Criticism. Warner: Library of Universal Literature. DICTIONARIES.—Webster: New International Dictionary. Worcester: Dictionary of the English Language. Funk and Wagnalls: Standard Dictionary. Whitney: The Century Dictionary. Murray: Oxford English Dictionary. Wright: Dialect Dictionary. BOOK OF THE SCIENCES AND INVENTION DEVELOPMENT OF THE SCIENCES IN PARALLEL OUTLINES— PRACTICAL MATHEMATICS—Arithematic and its Modern Applications—The Arithmetic of Business, Commercial and Industrial Transactions—Corporations, Stocks and Bonds—Table of Commercial Laws—Weights and Measures—PHYSICS: Laws and Properties of Matter—Mechanics and Inventions—Sound—Heat—Light and Color—Electricity and Magnetism—CHEMISTRY: Theory of Chemistry—Table of the Chemical Elements—The Chemistry of Common Things—REMARKABLE INVENTIONS AND DISCOVERIES —RECENT SCIENTIFIC PROGRESS, X-rays and Radium, Wireless Telegraphy, Wireless Telephone, Aeroplanes, Submarines, Airships, and Explosives. ⁂Books of Reference.—BIOLOGY.—Brooks: Foundations of Zoology. Morgan: Animal Behavior. Pearson: The Grammar of Science. Spencer: Principles of Biology. Thomson: The Science of Life. Verworn: General Physiology. Weismann: The Germ-Plasm. PHYSICS.—Ames: General Physics. Ames and Bliss: Manual of Experiments. Hoadley: Measurements in Magnetism and Electricity. Preston: Theory of Heat and Theory of Light. Poynting and Thomson: Heat. Tyndal: Light. Schuster: Theory of Optics. Barker: Physics. Merrill: Theoretical Mechanics. Helmholtz: Sensations of Tone. Kapp: Electric Transmission of Energy. Crocker: Electric Lighting. Sewell: Elements of Electrical Engineering. Jackson: Elements of Electricity and Magnetism and Alternating Currents and Alternating Current Machinery. CHEMISTRY.—Remsen: Introduction to the Study of Chemistry and Inorganic Chemistry. Roscoe: Lessons in Elementary Chemistry. Wurtz: Elements of Modern Chemistry. Ostwald: Inorganic Chemistry. Alexander Smith: Laboratory Outline of General Chemistry and General Inorganic Chemistry. Wiley: Chemistry of Foods and Agricultural Chemistry. Roscoe and Schorlemmer: Treatise on Chemistry. Watts: Dictionary of Chemistry. Thorp: Industrial Chemistry. (Abridged in the Concise Edition.) BOOK OF THE HUMAN BODY ITS STRUCTURE—ORGANIZATION INTO SYSTEMS —FUNCTIONS—SPECIAL SENSES—NERVOUS SYSTEM—PERSONAL HYGIENE—PREVENTION OF DISEASE—INTERDEPENDENCE OF BODY AND MIND—EUGENICS—ILLUSTRATIONS AND CHARTS. ⁂Books of Reference.—Morris: Treatise on Anatomy. Gray: Anatomy. Davidson: Human Body and Health. Martin: Human Body. Huxley and Youmans: Elements of Physiology and Hygiene. Wilson: The Cell in Development and in Inheritance. Thomson: Heredity. Loeb: Comparative Physiology of the Brain and Comparative Psychology. Sternberg: Manual of Bacteriology. (Abridged in the Concise Edition.) BOOK OF BIOGRAPHY BIOGRAPHICAL CHART SHOWING THE WORLD’S MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT BY CENTURIES. CHRONOLOGICAL DICTIONARY OF BIOGRAPHY: (a) The World’s Immortals, specially treated; (b) Present-Day Biographies. (The Biographical Chart only is included in the Concise edition.) ⁂Books of Reference.—Philips: Dictionary of Biographical Reference. Vincent: Dictionary of Biography. Thomas: Dictionary of Biography. Appleton: Dictionary of American Biography; Dictionary of National Biography; Who’s Who in Great Britain ; Who’s Who in America. Ruoff: Masters of Achievement; American Statesmen Series; American Men of Letters; English Statesmen Series; English Men of Letters. Smith: Dictionary of Christian Biography. (Omitted in the Concise Edition.) BOOK OF THE CHILD WORLD PLAYLAND—STORYLAND—NATURE-LAND—SCHOOL-LAND: SIMPLE LESSONS ABOUT WORDS, READING, WRITING, NUMBERS, ETC.— MANNERS AND CONDUCT—THE PARENT AND CHILD—THE OUTLOOK UPON LIFE—EDUCATION AND MORAL GROWTH—CARE OF THE BODY. ⁂Books of Reference.—PRIMARY EDUCATION.—Arnold: Rhythms. Barnard: Kindergarten and Child-Culture Papers. Blow: Educational Issues; Letters to a Mother; Symbolic Education. Froebel’s translated Mother-Play Songs. Froebel: Education of Man; Education by Development; Last Volumes of Pedagogics; Pedagogics of the Kindergarten. Hailman: Laws of Childhood. Harrison: A Study of Child-Nature; Kindergarten Building Gifts; Misunderstood Children; Two Children of the Foothills. Hughes: Educational Laws. Peabody: Kindergarten Lectures. Snider: Commentary on Froebel’s Mother-Play Songs; Life of Froebel; Psychology of the Play-Gifts. Vanderwalker: The Kindergarten in American Education. Von Bulow: The Child; Reminiscences of Froebel. (Abridged in the Concise Edition.) [ix] LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Color Plates Marvels of the Earth’s Rotation and Forces Proud Color Beauties of the Land of Flowers Three Celebrated Pictures of Animal Favorites Washington, America’s City Beautiful Architectural Glories of Famous Lands Famous Historical Pictures by Oriental Artists Tennyson’s Beautiful “Lady of Shalott” “Open Sesame!” Ali Baba at the Cave Picture Diagrams of Eye and Ear The Fiery Furnace that Purifies Bessemer Steel “The Ides of March” Famous Masterpieces by Famous Painters (Only six Color Plates are included in the single volume edition) Diagrams, Maps and Charts Color Diagram Showing the Ocean Beds Diagram of Orbits of the Planets Picture Diagram of the Moon’s Phases Star Charts of the Chief Constellations Maps of the Chief Constellations Chart of the Milky Way Diagrams Showing Formation of Eclipses Diagram Showing a Bisection of the Earth Chart Showing the Geological Growth of the Earth Geological Map of the United States Maps Showing Relative Size of Islands of the World Diagram of the World’s Famous Rivers and Mountains Maps Showing Relative Size of Lakes Diagrams Explaining the Seasons, Day and Night Pictorial Chart of Cloud Formations Map Showing Distribution of Plant Life Map Showing Range of Animal Life 16 Maps in Color Showing the Progress of Geographical Discovery 2 Picture Maps Presenting a Panoramic View of Paris 5 Picture Maps Giving a Panorama of the River Rhine Picture Diagram Showing Parts of a Locomotive Picture Diagram of Submarine Picture Diagram Explaining Wireless Telegraphy Picture Diagram Explaining an Electric Battery Picture Diagram Showing How Electricity is Generated Picture Diagram Explaining Radioactivity Map of Panama Canal and Connections Other Full Page and Text Illustrations These include hundreds of beautiful and instructive reproductions illustrative of the heavens, earth, minerals, plants and plant products, animal life, races and peoples, famous examples of architecture, scenes in great cities, historic shrines and ruins, mythology, science, marvels of mechanism, great works of engineering, monuments, industries, etc., as well as numerous photographic and art pictures of famous persons and episodes in the history of progress. [x] BOOK OF THE HEAVENS Descriptive and Explanatory THE UNIVERSE: ITS MAGNITUDE AND MEANING THE SOLAR SYSTEM: Sun, Planets, Moon, Constellations, Stars, Comets, Meteors, Nebulæ, and other Wonders of the Skies ORIGIN OF THE WORLDS: THE NEBULAR HYPOTHESIS ECLIPSES: CAUSES AND EXPLANATION MYTHOLOGY OF THE CONSTELLATIONS DICTIONARY OF SCIENTIFIC TERMS STAR CHARTS AND MAPS NUMEROUS ILLUSTRATIONS AND TABLES 1. Crowded group of stars seen in the constellation Hercules. Solar system Solar system 2. Beautiful circular group of stars in Aquarius. Very brilliant toward the center. 3-4. Fan-shaped groups of stars, frequently to be observed. 5. Round nebula of Ursa Major. 6. A fine star in Gemini with a great, oval atmosphere. 7. Star in Leo Major in the middle of nebula with very pointed ends. 8-9. Nebulæ with luminous trains like the tail of a comet. 10. Two stars in Canes Venatici joined by elliptical nebula. 11. Elliptical nebula in Sagittarius with a star in each of the foci. 12-13. Round nebula in Auriga with three stars in a triangle. 14. Great nebula in Andromeda. 15. Comet of 1819, of remarkable size. 16-17. Great comet of 1811. 18. Surface of the planet Mars, showing the supposed continents and seas. 19. Disk of the great planet Jupiter with its dark streaks and masses. 20. The wonderful planet Saturn with its remarkable rings. Explanation of Figures in Diagram DIAGRAM SHOWING RELATIVE ORBITS OF THE PLANETS AROUND THE SUN Rate at which the Planets Travel Central diagram enlarged (245 kB) Right-hand side illustration enlarged (181 kB) Solar system DIAGRAM SHOWING RELATIVE ORBITS OF THE PLANETS AROUND THE SUN Explanation of Figures in Diagram 1. Crowded group of stars seen in the constellation Hercules. 2. Beautiful circular group of stars in Aquarius. Very brilliant toward the center. 3-4. Fan-shaped groups of stars, frequently to be observed. 5. Round nebula of Ursa Major. 6. A fine star in Gemini with a great, oval atmosphere. 7. Star in Leo Major in the middle of nebula with very pointed ends. 8-9. Nebulæ with luminous trains like the tail of a comet. 10. Two stars in Canes Venatici joined by elliptical nebula. 11. Elliptical nebula in Sagittarius with a star in each of the foci. 12-13. Round nebula in Auriga with three stars in a triangle. 14. Great nebula in Andromeda. 15. Comet of 1819, of remarkable size. 16-17. Great comet of 1811. 18. Surface of the planet Mars, showing the supposed continents and seas. 19. Disk of the great planet Jupiter with its dark streaks and masses. 20. The wonderful planet Saturn with its remarkable rings. [11] [12] T T M Solar system Rate at which the Planets Travel BOOK OF THE HEAVENS THE UNIVERSE—THE SOLAR SYSTEM—PLANETS—SUN—MOON—CONSTELLATIONS—STARS—COMETS—METEORS—NEBULÆ—NEBULAR HYPOTHESIS—ECLIPSES—MYTHOLOGY OF THE CONSTELLATIONS—DICTIONARY OF SCIENTIFIC TERMS USED IN ASTRONOMY. HOW THE PLANETS WOULD APPEAR IF GROUPED IN SPACE In the above picture we have represented the planets of the Solar System as we should see them from the earth if the human eye could grasp a space of such immensity. The spectator is supposed to be standing on the earth, and the moon is in the foreground, 240,000 miles away. The planets are in their order outward from the sun, and vary in distance from 40,000,000 miles, in the case of Mars, to 2,700,000,000 miles in the case of Neptune. From the bottom upward, the planets are Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn and its rings, Uranus and Neptune. T H E W O R L D S I N T H E SK I E S he earth upon which we live is only one of many worlds that whirl through space. If we are to understand our own world, we must first learn something about the worlds in the skies. These bodies are arranged in groups, or systems, sweeping through circuits that baffle measurement; and such is the magnitude of the boundless space they occupy that our entire solar system is only a point in comparison. To this vast expanse of worlds, and systems and space we give the general name Universe. HE SOLAR SYSTEM AND ITS MEMBERS First in importance to us in this immense space filled with stars is what astronomers call the Solar System, so-called because the sun is its center. It contains the planets, eight in number, of which our earth is one. They have been named after the ancient deities; the two interior ones, Mercury and Venus, and the exterior ones, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune; the first three being smaller than our earth, and the remainder a great deal larger. Mercury and Venus are known to be interior planets, that is, planets between us and the sun, because they appear to swing on either side of the sun. Mercury very seldom leaves the sun sufficiently to rise so early before the sun, or set so late after him, as to be visible. Venus, however, gets so far away as to be seen long after sunset or before sunrise, and is called the Evening or Morning star, accordingly. Besides the planets there are other members of the system, namely, comets and falling stars, which will be mentioned again more fully hereafter. All these bodies form a sort of family, having the sun for their head. The illustrations and drawings on separate pages give a view of the entire system. Comparative Size. The size of the planets, in general, increases with their distance from the sun. The four composing the first group are all comparatively small, the earth being the largest. Those of the second group are all of great size. Jupiter, the largest, is not less than 1,390 times as large as the earth; but as it is much less dense, the amount of matter it contains is only a trifle more than 337 times that of the earth. All the planets together equal but one seven-hundredth part of the mass of the sun. The Satellites, except our moon, and the two satellites of Mars, belong wholly to the second group of planets. Jupiter has eight; Saturn eight and several revolving rings; Uranus has four, and possibly more; while Neptune, so far as known with certainty, has but one. OVEMENTS WITHIN THE SOLAR SYSTEM Rotary Motion. The sun, all the primary planets, and their satellites, as far as known, rotate from west to east. Each rotation constitutes a day for the rotating body. The central line of rotary motion is called the axis of rotation, and the extremities of the axis are called the Poles. Revolution Around the Sun. All the primary planets and asteroids revolve around the sun in the direction of their rotation, that is from west to east; and the planes of the orbits in which they revolve coincide very nearly with the plane of the sun’s equator. One revolution around the sun constitutes the year of a planet. All the satellites, except those of Uranus and perhaps Neptune, also revolve from west to east. Most of the comets revolve around the sun in very irregular and elongated orbits, only a few having their entire orbit within the planetary system. Some so move that after having entered our system and made their circuit around the sun, they seem to leave it, never to return. [13] [14] K T Zodiac Large illustration (258 kB) Since the orbits of the planets are in most cases not far removed from the plane of the ecliptic, they are to be seen in a comparatively narrow belt of the heavens called, The Zodiac. The belt of the sky which occupies 8° on each side of the ecliptic is called the Zodiac, and it is within this belt that the moon and the chief planets confine their movements, as none of their orbits is inclined to that of the earth by more than 8°. The Zodiac, which circles the celestial sphere, is divided into twelve signs each of which occupies 30°, and roughly coincides with a constellation. The following lists give the signs of the Zodiac, with the seasons in which the sun passes through each of them: Spring: Aries the Ram; Taurus the Bull; Gemini the Twins. Summer: Cancer the Crab; Leo the Lion; Virgo the Virgin. Autumn: Libra the Balance; Scorpio the Scorpion; Sagittarius the Archer. Winter: Capricornus the Goat; Aquarius the Water-bearer; Pisces the Fishes. Owing to the precession of the equinoxes, the signs of the Zodiac do not now correspond with the constellations of which they bear the names. Thus the sign Aries, in which the sun is seen on March 21st as it passes the vernal equinox, with which the solar year begins, is now in the constellation of Pisces, and in the course of the next 23,000 years it will move steadily backward through the constellations until it returns to the Ram, where it stood when its name was first given to it. EPLER’S CELEBRATED LAWS OF PLANETARY MOVEMENTS The laws under which the planets move were discovered through the genius of John Kepler, and are known as Kepler’s Laws of Planetary Motion. Kepler derived these laws from observation only, but Newton first explained them by showing that they were the necessary consequences of the laws of motion and the law of universal gravitation. Kepler’s First Law states: “The earth and the other planets revolve in ellipses with the sun in one focus.” Kepler’s Second Law states: “The radius vector of each planet moves over equal areas in equal times.” Kepler’s Third Law states: “The squares of the periodic times of the planets are in proportion to the cubes of their mean distances from the sun.” DIAGRAMS ILLUSTRATING KEPLER’S FIRST TWO LAWS OF PLANETARY MOTION The diagram on the top illustrates the ellipse, and explains the first and second laws. The picture-diagram on the bottom illustrates the second law, which is that, as the planet moves round the sun, its radius vector describes equal areas in equal times. That is to say, a planet moves from A to B in the same time as it takes to move from C to D. These laws cannot be fully understood without some acquaintance with mathematics. They may, however, be briefly explained for the comprehension of the non-mathematical reader. The figure in the diagram is an ellipse—what is known in popular language as an oval—which is symmetrical about the line AB, known as its major axis. It has two foci, S and S1. The fundamental law of the ellipse is that if we take any point P on it, and join this point by a straight line to the two foci, then the sum of these two lines SP and S1P is always the same—SP + S1P = C. The second law is rather less easy to understand. The radius vector is the line joining the sun to the planet at any moment; if we suppose the sun to be at the focus S, and P to be the planet, the radius vector at various positions of the planet will be represented by the lines SP, SP1, SP2, and so on. If the positions P, P1, P2, and so on, represent those which the planet occupies after equal periods of time—say, once a month—then the sectors of the ellipse bounded by each pair of lines, SP and SP1, SP1 and SP2, will be equal. If a planet were to move in a circle round the sun, it is obvious that this law would imply that it moved with a uniform speed; but since the curvature of the ellipse varies in every part of its course, so must the speed of the planet, in order that its radius vector may describe equal areas in equal times. The planet will, in fact, be moving faster when it is near the sun, as at P, than when it is far off from the sun, as at P2. The third law shows that there is a definite numerical relation between the motions of all the planets, and that the time which each of them takes to complete its orbit depends upon its distance from the sun. On his discovery of his third law Kepler had written: “The book is written to be read either now or by posterity—I care not which; it may well wait a century for a reader, as God has waited six thousand years for an observer.” Twelve years after his death, on Christmas Day, 1642, near Grantham, England, the predestined “reader” was born. The inner meaning of Kepler’s three laws was brought to light by Isaac Newton. HE GIGANTIC SUN AND HIS FUNCTION IN THE SOLAR SYSTEM The great luminary which warms, lights, and rules the solar system is, like the majority of its fellow stars, a gigantic bubble. In other words, it is a globe of glowing gas, which is nowhere solid, though the immense pressure which must exist in its interior probably causes this gas to assume there a density greater than that of any solid which we know. [15] [16] T A PHOTOGRAPH OF THE SUN, SHOWING THE CLOUDS OF FIERY VAPOR WHICH SURROUND IT Dimensions of the Sun. The sun appears to human vision as a brilliant globe of a little more than half a degree in diameter. It is about the same apparent size as the moon, since the size of the sun is to that of the moon very nearly in the same proportion as their relative distances from the earth. In reality, however, the sun is a gigantic orb, so huge that if the earth were at its center the whole orbit of the moon would lie well within its circumference. The diameter of the sun is about 866,500 miles. The mass of the sun is about 332,000 times that of the earth, but its specific gravity is only about a quarter that of the earth, 1.41, if that of water be taken as unity. The mean distance of the sun from the earth is about 92,800,000 miles; but, as the earth’s orbit is not circular but elliptic, this distances varies by about 3,000,000 miles, being smallest in January and greatest in July. The Physical Condition of the sun is very different from that of the earth, though we know it is composed of very similar materials. The white-hot surface that we see, called the photosphere, is believed to be largely a shell of highly heated metallic vapors surrounding the unseen mass beneath. Dark spaces seen in the photosphere are known as sun-spots, and these are often surrounded by brighter patches, termed faculæ. Above the photosphere a shallow envelope of gases, rising here and there into huge prominences, and known as the chromosphere, is seen in red tints when the sun is totally eclipsed. Beyond the chromosphere, there is also seen, at the same time, a faint but far more extensive envelope called the corona. This diagram illustrates the theory that sun-spots are formed by fragments struck from Saturn’s rings (which are in themselves nothing more than a great meteoric swarm) by the swarm of meteors known as the Leonids, which fragments fall into the solar furnace at a speed of four hundred miles a second. The sun’s rays supply light and...