Chemistry T h e C Like the author’s other companion books, The Chemistry Companion h provides high quality information in unique one-page-per-topic presenta- e tions that do not overburden and distract readers with excessive details. m The book offers concise summaries of general chemistry concepts, i s easily accessible in a convenient, reader-friendly format. t r y Suitable as an introduction or study guide, this companion presents the C OCH minimum of what readers need to know to understand the subject. It o 3 emphasizes the physics underlying chemistry. By looking at chemistry m processes from a physics point of view, readers better appreciate what p is happening from the chemical perspective that is usually found in a traditional chemistry books. n i o The author focuses on the structure of matter, chemical components n C and bonds, the periodic table, states of matter, thermodynamics, reaction H O rates, carbon chemistry, biochemistry, and chemical, ionic, and electronic equilibria. Each topic is covered in a single-page outline format with just enough detail to enable a good understanding of the subject. A Features C The • Provides a physical understanding of chemical concepts F I S • Presents clear explanations of difficult material, working through any C H inconsistencies in understanding Chemistry E R • Uses a convenient format for checking formulas and definitions - C • Includes self-contained information on each page, assuming little R I prior knowledge P Companion P S K11517 ISBN: 978-1-4398-3088-8 90000 A C FISCHER-CRIPPS 9 781439 830888 The Chemistry Companion TThhiiss ppaaggee iinntteennttiioonnaallllyy lleefftt bbllaannkk The Chemistry Companion A C FISCHER-CRIPPS CRC Press Taylor & Francis Group 6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300 Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742 © 2012 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business No claim to original U.S. Government works Version Date: 20110517 International Standard Book Number-13: 978-1-4398-3089-5 (eBook - PDF) This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. 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For permission to photocopy or use material electronically from this work, please access www. copyright.com (http://www.copyright.com/) or contact the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc. (CCC), 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, 978-750-8400. CCC is a not-for-profit orga- nization that provides licenses and registration for a variety of users. For organizations that have been granted a photocopy license by the CCC, a separate system of payment has been arranged. Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe. Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at http://www.taylorandfrancis.com and the CRC Press Web site at http://www.crcpress.com This book is dedicaated to Bill Cripps industriaal chemist TThhiiss ppaaggee iinntteennttiioonnaallllyy lleefftt bbllaannkk vii Contents Preface ………………………………………………………………… xiii 1. Structure of Matter .........................................................................1 11.11 AAttoommss ....................................................................................22 1.2 Bohr Atom .............................................................................3 1.3 Energy Levels ......................................................................4 1.4 Schrödinger Equation ..........................................................5 1.5 The Infinite Square Well ......................................................6 1.6 The Coulomb Potential ........................................................7 1.7 Covalent Bond .....................................................................8 1.8 Ionisation Energy .................................................................9 1.9 Electron Affinity ...................................................................10 1.10 Ionic Bond ...........................................................................11 1.11 Electronegativity ................................................................12 1.12 Metallic Bond .....................................................................13 11.1133 EElleeccttrroonniicc SSttrruuccttuurree ooff SSoolliiddddss ............................................1144 2. Chemical Components ...............................................................15 2.1 Matter .................................................................................16 2.2 Atomic Weight ....................................................................17 2.3 Ions ....................................................................................18 2.4 Molecules ...........................................................................19 2.5 Mole ...................................................................................20 2.6 Compounds .......................................................................21 2.7 Cations ...............................................................................22 2.8 Anions .................................................................................23 2.9 Chemical Equation .............................................................24 22.1100 SSttooiicchhiioommeettrryy .....................................................................2255 2.11 Example ..............................................................................26 3. The Periodic Table ......................................................................27 3.1 Electron Configuration .......................................................28 3.2 Periodic Law ......................................................................29 3.3 Periodic Table .....................................................................30 3.4 Groups ...............................................................................31 3.5 Energy Levels ....................................................................32 3.6 Noble Gases ......................................................................33 3.7 Atomic Size .........................................................................34 3.8 Covalent Radii ...................................................................35 33.99 IIoonniicc RRaaddiiii...........................................................................3366 3.10 Ionisation Energy ...............................................................37 3.11 Electronegativity ................................................................38 viii 4. Chemical Bonds ..........................................................................39 4.1 Chemical Bond ...................................................................40 44.22 LLeewwiiss ((EElleeccttrroonn DDoott)) FFoorrmmuullaaee ..........................................4411 4.3 Multiple Bonds .................................................................. 42 4.4 Lewis Single-Bonded Structtures .......................................43 4.5 Lewis Multiple-Bonded Structures .................................... 44 4.6 Lewis Exceptions to the Octtet Rule ...................................45 4.7 Oxidation Number .............................................................46 4.8 Oxidation Number Examplees ............................................ 47 4.9 Polar Bonds ...................................................................... 48 4.10 Hybrid Orbitals .................................................................. 49 4.11 Polarisation ....................................................................... 50 4.12 van derWaals Forces .......................................................51 4.13 Hydrogen Bond .................................................................52 5. States of Matter ...........................................................................53 5.1 Changes of State ...............................................................54 5.2 Changes of State of Liquidss/Gases ...................................55 5.3 Phases of Matter ................................................................56 5.4 Gases .................................................................................57 5.5 Solutions ............................................................................58 5.6 Aqueous Solutions ............................................................59 5.7 Solubility of Solids ..............................................................60 5.8 Solubility Equilibrium ..........................................................61 5.9 Electrolytes ........................................................................62 5.10 Osmosis ............................................................................63 55.1111 SSoolliiddss .................................................................................6644 5.12 Crystalline Lattice Structurees .............................................65 5.13 Metallic Solids ....................................................................66 6. Chemical Thermodynamics .......................................................67 6.1 Molecular Energy ...............................................................68 6.2 Specific Heat Capacity .......................................................69 6.3 Enthalpy .............................................................................70 6.4 Heat of Reaction ................................................................71 6.5 Heat of Reaction ................................................................72 6.6 Enthalpy of Formation ........................................................73 6.7 Entropy ...............................................................................74 66.88 EEnnttrrooppyy CCaallccuullaattiioonnss ..........................................................7755 6.9 Gibbs Energy .....................................................................76 6.10 Spontaneous Processes ....................................................77 6.11 Melting of Ice ......................................................................78 6.12 Freezing of Water ..............................................................79 ix 6.13 Ice/Water Equilibrium .........................................................80 6.14 Chemical Equilibrium .........................................................81 66.1155 SSttaattiissttiiccaall EEnnttrrooppyy ..............................................................8822 7. Rates of Reaction ........................................................................83 7.1 Rates of Reaction ..............................................................84 7.2 Collision Theory .................................................................85 7.3 Reaction Mechanism .........................................................86 7.4 Activation Energy ..............................................................87 7.5 Nature of Reactants ...........................................................88 7.6 Concentration .....................................................................89 7.7 Rate Law ............................................................................90 7.8 Rates of Reactions .............................................................91 7.9 Determination of Order ......................................................92 77.1100 DDeetteerrmmiinnaattiioonn ooff 11sstt OOrrddeerr RRRRaattee LLaaww ................................9933 7.11 Half-Life Method .................................................................94 7.12 Temperature ......................................................................95 7.13 Catalysts ............................................................................96 8. Chemical Equilibrium .................................................................97 8.1 Chemical Equilibrium .........................................................98 8.2 Law of Chemical Equilibriumm .............................................99 8.3 Equilibrium Constant .........................................................100 8.4 Le Chatelier’sPrinciple ....................................................101 8.5 Summary of Le Chatelier’sPPrinciple ................................102 8.6 Equilibrium in Gaseous Sysstems .................................... 103 88.77 SSoolluubbiilliittyy ooff SSoolliiddss .............................................................110044 8.8 Factors Affecting Equilibriumm ...........................................105 8.9 Common Ion Effect ..........................................................106 8.10 Precipitation .....................................................................107 8.11 Complex Ions ...................................................................108 9. Ionic Equilibrium ........................................................................109 9.1 Electrolytes ......................................................................110 9.2 Ionisation of Water ...........................................................111 9.3 H+and OHConcentrationss .............................................112 9.4 Acids and Bases ..............................................................113 9.5 BronstedLowry............................................................. 114 99.66 SSttrreennggtthh ooff AAcciiddss ..............................................................111155 9.7 AcidBaseReactions ...................................................... 116 9.8 Buffer Solutions ................................................................117 9.9 Indicators .........................................................................118 9.10 Neutralisation ...................................................................119