THE CHEMICAL SENSES AND NUTRITION THE NUTRITION FOUNDATION A Monograph Series HORACE L. SIPPLE AND KRISTEN W. MCNUTT, EDS. : Sugars in Nutrition, 1974 ROBERT E. OLSON, ED. : Protein-Calorie Malnutrition, 1975 ANANDA S. PRASAD, ED. : Trace Elements in Human Health and Disease, Volume I, Zinc and Copper, 1976; Volume II, Essential and Toxic Elements, 1976 MORLEY R. KARE AND OWEN MALLER, EDS. : The Chemical Senses and Nutri­ tion, 1977 THE CHEMICAL SENSES AND NUTRITION Edited by MORLEY R. KARE OWEN MALLER Monell Chemical Senses Center University of Pennsylvania Philadelphia, Pennsylvania ACADEMIC PRESS New York San Francisco London 1977 A Subsidiary of Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, Publishers COPYRIGHT © 1977, BY ACADEMIC PRESS, INC. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. NO PART OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE REPRODUCED OR TRANSMITTED IN ANY FORM OR BY ANY MEANS, ELECTRONIC OR MECHANICAL, INCLUDING PHOTOCOPY, RECORDING, OR ANY INFORMATION STORAGE AND RETRIEVAL SYSTEM, WITHOUT PERMISSION IN WRITING FROM THE PUBLISHER. ACADEMIC PRESS, INC. Ill Fifth Avenue, New York, New York 10003 United Kingdom Edition published by ACADEMIC PRESS, INC. (LONDON) LTD. 24/28 Oval Road. London NW1 Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Main entry under title: The Chemical senses and nutrition. (Nutrition Foundation series) Includes bibliographies and index. 1. Chemical senses—Congresses. 2. Nutrition -Congresses. I. Kare, Morley Ricard, Date II. Mailer, Owen. III. Series: Nutrition Foundation, New York. Nutrition Foundation monograph series. [DNLM: 1. Nutrition-Congresses. 2. Taste-Congresses. 3. Smell—Congresses. W3 IN1946N 1976c /QU145 16025 1976c] QP455.C474 591.l'8 77-74054 ISBN 0-12-397850-5 PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA Contents List of Contributors xni List of Participants xvi Foreword xvii Preface χΐχ PALATABILITY AND INGESTION Chapter 1 Gastropod Mollusks as Model Systems for the Study of Integrative Mechanisms Controlling Feeding Behavior DAVID M. SENSEMAN Experimental Advantages of Gastropods 5 Black Box "B" 8 Black Box "A" 12 Black Box "SAT" 14 Black Box "L" 16 Black Box "F" 17 The Significance of Gastropod Neurobiology 20 References 21 Discussion 22 Chapter 2 External Influences on the Feeding of Carnivores ROGER A. MUGFORD Introduction 25 Characteristics of Ingestive Behavior 26 Social Factors Affecting Ingestive Behavior 31 Effects of Prior Experience upon Food Selection and Intake 33 Olfactory Influences over Ingestive Behavior 38 References 45 Discussion 48 ν Contents VI Chapter 3 Nutritional States, Food Odors, and Olfactory Function JEANNE PAGER Coding Related Variability 55 Variability Related to Internal State 60 References 65 Discussion 67 SENSORY QUALITY AND INGESTION Chapter 4 Intensity and Hedonic Functions for Chemosensory Stimuli HOWARD R. MOSKOWITZ Introduction 71 Psychophysical Measurement Methods 72 Intensity Measurement in the Chemical Senses 74 Pleasantness (Hedonic) Measurement in the Chemical Senses 75 Problems with Simple Systems 78 The Approach of the Present Paper 78 Discussion 92 An Overview 96 References 97 Discussion 99 Chapter 5 Influence of Internal Factors on the Perceived Intensity and Pleasantness of Gustatory and Olfactory Stimuli GEORGE D. MOWER, ROBERT G. MAIR, AND TRYGG ENGEN Method 104 Results 107 Discussion 115 Summary 117 References 118 Discussion 118 Chapter 6 Sensory-Neuroendocrine Reflexes and Their Anticipatory and Optimizing Role on Metabolism STYLIANOS NICOLAIDIS Oroglycemic Responses 124 Early Insulin and Glucagon Release during Ingestion 126 Contents VU Preabsorptive Metabolic Changes 129 Metabolic Consequences of the Suppression of Orogastrointestinal Information 132 Neurophysiological Mechanism of Sensory Metabolic Anticipatory Responses 135 References 138 Discussion 140 Chapter 7 Taste Stimuli and Pancreatic Functions MICHAEL NAIM AND MORLEY R. KARE Text 145 References 160 Discussion 162 NUTRITIVE STATE Chapter 8 Nutritional State/Taste Interactions in Food Intake: Behavioral and Physiological Evidence for Gastric/Taste Modulation Κ. N. SHARMA, H. L. JACOBS, V. GOPAL, AND S. DUA-SHARMA Introduction 167 Energy Balance—Input/Output Variables 168 Taste and Energy Deficit—Behavior Analysis 170 Energy Deficit—Gastric Modulation of Taste 176 Summary 184 References 185 Discussion 187 Chapter 9 Influence of Protein Nutrition on the Olfactory Bulb HANS FISHER Text 189 References 198 Discussion 199 Chapter 10 The Role of Vitamins and Minerals in Taste STANLEY N. GERSHOFF Text 201 References 209 Discussion 210 viii Contents Chapter 11 The Control of Food Intake: When and How Are Amino Acids Involved? Q. R. ROGERS AND P. M. B. LEUNG What Are the Food Intake Responses of Animals to Dietary Protein and Amino Acids? 213 What Are the Metabolites Mediating the Eifect of Amino Acids on Food Intake? 220 Where Is the Receptor System Mediating the Effect of Dietary Amino Acids on the Control of Food Intake? 227 What Is the Mechanism of the Behavioral Responses of Animals Fed Disproportionate Quantities of Amino Acids? 237 What Senses Are Important and/or Essential in the Response of Animals to Amino Acids? 239 References 246 Discussion 248 PERCEPTION AND EXPERIENCE Chapter 12 The Ontogeny, Evolution, and Stimulus Control of Feeding in Humans and Reptiles GORDON M. BURGHARDT Introduction 253 The Influence of Color on Odor Recognition 254 Snakes and Digestion 259 Prey Recognition in Neonate Snakes 261 Ontogenetic Changes in Prey Preferences 265 Visual Cues and Prey Selection in Snakes 266 The Evolution of Feeding Behavior 268 Conclusion 271 References 272 Discussion 274 Chapter 13 Conditioned Responses to Food Odor and Taste in Rats and Wild Predators JOHN GARCIA AND LINDA P. BRETT Taste and Odor Cues in Food Regulation 277 Taste and Odor Cues in Pain Avoidance 280 Taste and Odor Cues in Predatory Behavior 282 References 288 Discussion 289 Contents ix Chapter 14 The Development of Flavor Preferences in Humans: A Review GARY K. BEAUCHAMP AND OWEN MALLER Experience and Food Preferences 292 The Role of Experience in Taste Preferences 296 The Role of Experience in Olfactory Preferences 302 Conclusions 305 References 308 Discussion 310 FLAVOR RECOGNITION Chapter 15 Food Preference Ratings of Congenitally Anosmic Humans RICHARD L. DOTY Subjects 316 Food Preference Surveys 317 Survey Administration Procedures 318 Reliability of the Food Preference Surveys 318 Correlation of Food Preference Data with Results from Similar Preference Inventories 319 Major Findings of Present Surveys 319 Discussion of Survey Results 322 References 323 Discussion 324 Chapter 16 Sweet Taste Sensitivity in Japanese Macaques MASAYASU SATO, YASUTAKE HIJI, HIROSUMI ITO, AND TOSHIAKI ΙΜΟΤΟ Chorda Tympani Nerve Responses in Japanese Macaques to Various Sweeteners Including Aspartame and Stevioside 328 Ingestive Responses in Japanese Macaques to Various Sweeteners 332 Interaction of Protein Extracted from Monkey Tongue Epithelium with Sweeteners 336 Conclusions 339 References 340 Discussion 341