THE CAMBRIDGE HISTORY OF CHINA J General Editors r DENIS TWITCHETT AND JOHN K. FAIRBANK Volume 8 The Ming Dynasty, 1368 - 1644, Part 2 r Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 Work on this volume was partially supported by the National Endowment for the Humanities, Grants RO-20431-Sj, RO-21i}6i-86, andRO-22077-90. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 THE CAMBRIDGE HISTORY OF CHINA Volume 8 The Ming Dynasty, 1368 — 1644, Part 2 edited by DENIS TWITCHETT and FREDERICK W. MOTE CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 Published by the Press Syndicate of the University of Cambridge The Pitt Building, Trumpington Street, Cambridge CB2 iRP 40 West 20th Street, New York, NY 10011-4211, USA 1 o Stamford Road, Oakleigh, Melbourne 3166, Australia © Cambridge University Press 1998 First published 1998 Printed in the United States of America The Cambridge History of China Vol. 1 edited by Denis Twitchett and Michael Loewe; v. 3 edited by Denis Twitchett; v. 6 edited by Herbert Franke and Denis Twitchett; v. 7-8 edited by Frederick W. Mote and Denis Twitchett; v. 10 edited by John K. Fairbank; v. 11 edited by John K. Fairbank and Kwang-Ching Liu; v. 12 edited by John K. Fairbank; v. 13 edited by John K. Fairbank and Albert Feuerwerker; v. 14—1 j edited by Roderick MacFarquhar and John K. Fairbank. Includes bibliographies and indexes v. 1 The Ch'in and Han Empires, 221 B.G-A.D. 220. v. 3. Sui and T'ang China, 5 89-906, pt. I. v. 6. Alien regimes and border states, 710-1368. v. 7-8 The Ming Dynasty, 1368-1644, pt. 1-2. v. 10-11. LateCh'ing, 1800-1911.pt. 1—2. v. 12—13. Republican China, 1912-1949.pt. 1—2 v. 14—1 j. The People's Republic, pt. 1—2. Library 0/Congress Cataloging-in- Publication Data (Revised for volume 8) Main entry under title: The Cambridge history of China. Bibliography: v. 1 o, pt. 1, p. Includes indexes. Contents —v. 2, Sui and T'ang China, 589-906. pt. 1. — v. 7. The Ming Dynasty, 1368-1644, pt. 1 — v. 8. The Ming Dynasty, 1368-1644, pt. u -v. 10. LateCh'ing, 1800-1911, pt. 1 - [etc.] 1. China — History. 1. Twitchett, Denis Crispin. 11. Fairbank, John King, 1907— DS735.C314; 93i'.o3 76-29852 A catalog record for this book is available from the British Library ISBNO 521 24333 5 hardback Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 GENERAL EDITORS' PREFACE When The Cambridge History of China was first planned, more than two decades ago, it was naturally intended that it should begin with the very earliest peri- ods of Chinese history. However, the production of the series has taken place over a period of years when our knowledge both of Chinese prehistory and of much of the first millennium BC has been transformed by the spate of archeological discoveries that began in the 1920s and has been gathering increasing momentum since the early 1970s. This flood of new information has changed our view of early history repeatedly, and there is not yet any gen- erally accepted synthesis of this new evidence and the traditional written record. In spite of repeated efforts to plan and produce a volume or volumes that would summarize the present state of our knowledge of early China, it has so far proved impossible to do so. It may well be another decade before it will prove practical to undertake a synthesis of all these new discoveries that is likely to have some enduring value. Reluctantly, therefore, we begin the coverage of The Cambridge History of China with the establishment of the first imperial regimes, those of Ch'in and Han. We are conscious that this leaves a millennium or more of the recorded past to be dealt with elsewhere and at another time. We are equally conscious of the fact that the events and developments of the first millennium BC laid the foundations for the Chinese society and its ideas and institutions that we are about to describe. The institu- tions, the literary and artistic culture, the social forms, and the systems of ideas and beliefs of Ch'in and Han were firmly rooted in the past, and cannot be understood without some knowledge of this earlier history. As the modem world grows more interconnected, historical understanding of it becomes ever more necessary and the historian's task ever more complex. Fact and the- ory affect each other even as sources proliferate and knowledge increases. Merely to summarize what is known becomes an awesome task, yet a factual basis of knowledge is increasingly essential for historical thinking. Since the beginning of the century, the Cambridge histories have set a pat- tern in the English-reading world for multivolume series containing chapters Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 VI GENERAL EDITORS PREFACE written by specialists under the guidance of volume editors. The Cambridge Modem History, planned by Lord Acton, appeared in sixteen volumes between 1902 and 1912. It was followed by The Cambridge Ancient History, The Cam- bridge Medieval History, The Cambridge History of English Literature, and Cam- bridge histories of India, of Poland, and of the British Empire. The original Modem History has now been replaced by The New Cambridge Modem History in twelve volumes, and The Cambridge Economic History of Europe is now being completed. Other Cambridge histories include histories of Islam, Arabic lit- erature, Iran, Judaism, Africa, Japan, and Latin America. In the case of China, Western historians face a special problem. The history of Chinese civilization is more extensive and complex than that of any single Western nation, and only slightly less ramified than the history of European civilization as a whole. The Chinese historical record is immensely detailed and extensive, and Chinese historical scholarship has been highly developed and sophisticated for many centuries. Yet until recent decades, the study of China in the West, despite the important pioneer work of European sinolo- gists, had hardly progressed beyond the translation of some few classical his- torical texts, and the outline history of the major dynasties and their institutions. Recently Western scholars have drawn more fully upon the rich traditions of historical scholarship in China and also in Japan, and greatly advanced both our detailed knowledge of past events and institutions, and also our cri- tical understanding of traditional historiography. In addition, the present generation of Western historians of China can also draw upon the new out- looks and techniques of modern Western historical scholarship, and upon recent developments in the social sciences, while continuing to build upon the solid foundations of rapidly progressing European, Japanese, and Chinese studies. Recent historical events, too, have given prominence to new prob- lems, while throwing into question many older conceptions. Under these multiple impacts the Western revolution in Chinese studies is steadily gather- ing momentum. When The Cambridge History of China was first planned in 1966, the aim was to provide a substantial account of the history of China as a benchmark for the Western history-reading public: an account of the current state of knowl- edge in six volumes. Since then the outpouring of current research, the appli- cation of new methods, and the extension of scholarship into new fields have further stimulated Chinese historical studies. This growth is indicated by the fact that the history has now become a planned fifteen volumes, but will still leave out such topics as the history of art and of literature, many aspects of economics and technology, and all the riches of local history. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 GENERAL EDITORS PREFACE Vll The striking advances in our knowledge of China's past over the last dec- ade will continue and accelerate. Western historians of this great and complex subject are justified in their efforts by the needs of their own peoples for greater and deeper understanding of China. Chinese history belongs to the world not only as a right and necessity, but also as a subject of compelling interest. JOHN K. FAIRBANK DENIS TWITCHETT 1976 Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 GENERAL EDITORS' PREFACE TO VOLUME 8 Thirty years have elapsed since 1966, when the late John King Fairbank and myself laid the first plans for a Cambridge History of China. The above Gen- eral Editors' Preface was written twenty years ago, in 1976, and the first volumes appeared shortly afterwards in 1978 and 1979. With the appearance of this volume, eleven volumes are now in print. Much has changed in the intervening years. In 1966, China and China's aca- deme were entering into one of their bleakest periods with the onset of Mao's Great Cultural revolution. The historical profession, in common with all branches of intellectual endeavor, was devastated. Those Chinese col- leagues whose participation in this enterprise we would have sought in nor- mal times were silenced and humiliated. It was impossible to communicate with them and would have endangered them had we done so. When we wrote in 1976, the unbelievable scale of the human suffering and the appalling damage that had been wrought was clear to see. Some promi- nent historians were dead, some by their own hands. Very many others had spent a decade and more living in degrading conditions in enforced banish- ment, prevented from continuing their work. Great institutions had ceased to function. Such academic life as survived was entirely politicized. The pub- lication of serious scholarly historical journals and monographs had ceased from 1967 until 1972. Such few historical works as appeared were banal poli- tical propaganda. Even in 1976, serious publication was still a mere trickle, much of it completed in happier circumstances before the Cultural Revolu- tion. There was still no formal graduate-level teaching in Chinese universities to produce the urgently needed younger generation of scholars. When the first volumes of the Cambridge History of China appeared in 1978-9, the situation had begun to change. A number of Chinese historians had been allowed to travel to the West, at first mostly senior scholars warily participating in meetings and conferences. The initial planning of the two volumes of The Cambridge History of China on the Ming, of which this is the sec- ond, took place at two international workshops held in Princeton in 1979 Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008