THE CAMBRIDGE ANCIENT HISTORY SECOND EDITION VOLUME IX The Last Age of the Roman Republic, 146-43 B.C. edited by J. A. CROOK Fellow of St John's College and Emeritus Professor of Ancient History, Cambridge ANDREW LINTOTT Fellow and Tutor in Ancient History, Worcester College, Oxford The late ELIZABETH RAWSON Formerly Fellow and Tutor in Ancient History, Corpus Christi College, Oxford CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 PUBLISHED BY THE PRESS SYNDICATE OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE The Pitt Building, Trumpington Street, Cambridge, United Kingdom CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS The Edinburgh Building, Cambridge CB2 2RU, UK 40 West 20th Street, New York, NY 10011-4211, USA 477 Williamstown Road, Port Melbourne, vie 3207, Australia Ruiz de Alarc6n 13, 28014 Madrid, Spain Dock House, The Waterfront, Cape Town 8001, South Africa http://www.cambridge.org © Cambridge University Press 1992 This book is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception and to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements, no reproduction of any pan may take place without the written permission of Cambridge University Press. First published 1992 Seventh printing 2006 Printed in the United Kingdom at the University Press, Cambridge A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Card no. 75-85719 ISBN o 521 25603 8 (hardback) Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 CONTENTS hist of maps page xi hist of text-figures xi Preface xiii PART I i The crisis of the Republic: sources and source-problems 1 by ANDREW LINTOTT I Ancient theories about the late Republic 6 II Modern interpretations of the late Republic 10 2 The Roman empire and its problems in the late second century 16 bj ANDREW LINTOTT i Spain 20 II Gaul 23 m Sicily 25 iv Africa 27 v Macedonia and Greece 31 vi Asia 33 vn Military strength and the empire 36 3 Political history, 146-95 B.C. 40 by ANDREW LINTOTT 1 The Roman constitution in the second century B.C. 40 11 The agrarian problem and the economy 53 in Politics after the fall of Carthage 59 iv Tiberius Gracchus 62 v Caius Gracchus 77 vi The aristocracy and Marius 86 vn Marius and the equites 90 VIII Generals and tribunes 92 Rome and Italy: the Social War 104 by E. GABBA, Istituto di Storia Antica, Universita degli Studi, Pavia Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 yi CONTENTS 5 Mithridates 129 by JOHN G. F. HIND, Lecturer in Ancient History, School of History, University of Leeds I The dynasty 130 11 The kingdom 133 in Mithridates'Black Sea empire 137 iv Kings and Romans in western Anatolia, 108-89 B-c- '4° v Threats and bluffs 143 vi Mithridates'conquest of Asia, 89-88 B.C. 144 VII Overreach 149 VIII Athens, Delos and Achaea 150 ix The sieges of Athens and Piraeus 15 3 x The battles in Boeotia 154 xi Reaction in Asia, 86 B.C. 159 XII The Treaty of Dardanus, the fate of Asia and the felicity of Sulla 161 6 Sulla 165 by ROBIN SEAGER, Reader in Classics and Ancient History, University of Liverpool 1 Sulla, Sulpicius and Marius, 88 B.C. 165 11 Cinnanum tempus, 87—84 B.C. 173 in The civil war, 83-81 B.C. 187 iv Sulla's dictatorship and its aftermath, 82-78 B.C. 197 7 The rise of Pompey 208 bj ROBIN SEAGER 1 The revolt of Lepidus, 78-77 B.C. 208 II Politics at Rome, 77-71 B.C. 210 in The wars against Sertorius and Spartacus, 79-71 B.C. 215 iv The first consulship of Pompey and Crassus, 70 B.C. 223 %a Lucullus, Pompey and the East 229 by A. N. SHERWIN-WHITE, Formerly Reader in Ancient History, University of Oxford 1 Preliminary operations: Murena and Servilius 229 11 The opening of the Third War 233 in The campaign in Pontus 237 iv Lucullus in Armenia 239 v Lucullus and the cities 244 vi Pompey in the East 248 VII The end of Mithridates 254 VIII The Caucasian campaigns 255 ix The organization of gains and the annexation of Syria 258 x Pompey in Judaea and Nabatene 260 xi Parthia and Rome 262 XII The eastern settlement of Pompey 265 XIII Gabinius and the aftermath of Pompey 271 Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 CONTENTS Vll %b The Jews under Hasmonean rule 274 by TESSA RAJAK, Reader in Classics, University of Reading 1 The period 274 n The sources 277 in The emergence of Judaea as a Hellenistic state 280 iv Territorial expansion 287 v Conquest and Judaization 291 vi Hellenization and the image of the Hasmonean ruler 296 VII Divisions in Jewish thought and society 299 8c Egypt, 146-31 B.C. 310 by DOROTHY j. THOMPSON, Fellow and Lecturer in A ncient History, Girton College, Cambridge 1 The later Ptolemies 310 11 Egypt: society and economy 322 9 The Senate and thepopulares, 69-60 B.C. 327 by T. p. WISEMAN, Professor of Classics, University of Exeter 1 Lustrum 327 n The tribunes 329 in Pompey's absence 338 iv The peasants' revolt and the bankrupts' plot 346 v Return of the hero 3 5 8 10 Caesar, Pompey and Rome, 59—50 B.C. 368 by T. p. WISEMAN 1 Caesar and Clodius 368 11 The conquest of Gaul 381 in Egypt and Parthia 391 iv Fin de sie'cle 403 v The reconquest of Gaul 408 vi The final crisis 417 11 Caesar: civil war and dictatorship 424 by the late ELIZABETH RAWSON 1 The civil war 424 11 The dictatorship 438 12 The aftermath of the Ides 468 by the late ELIZABETH RAWSON PART II 13 The constitution and public criminal law 491 by DUNCAN CLOUD, Associate Senior Lecturer in the School of Archaeological Studies, University of Leicester 1 The Roman constitution 491 Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 Vlll CONTENTS ii I us publhum 498 in Quaestionesperpetuae 505 14 The development of Roman private law 5 31 by j. A. CROOK 15 The administration of the empire 5 64 ij JOHN RICHARDSON, Professor of Classics, University of Edinburgh 1 Provinces and provinciae: the origins of the system 5 64 11 The basis and limits of the governor's power 572 in The governor at work 580 iv Taxation 585 v Jurisdiction 589 vi The provinciae and the provincials 591 VII Provinciae, provinces and empire: the beginnings of a change in perceptions 593 16 Economy and society, 133-43 B.C. 599 by c. NICOLET, Professor at the Sorbonne (Paris I) 1 Context: geography and demography 600 11 Italian agriculture 609 in Industry and manufacture 623 iv Commerce and money 627 v Economy and society 640 17 The city of Rome and the plebs urbana in the late Republic 644 by NICHOLAS PURCELL, Fellow and Tutor in Ancient History, St John's College, Oxford 18 The intellectual developments of the Ciceronian age 689 by MIRIAM GRIFFIN, Fellow and Tutor in Ancient History, Somerville College, Oxford 1 Education 690 11 Social setting 692 in Hellenization 696 iv Scholarship and science 701 v Pythagoreanism 707 vi The new poetry 710 VII History and related studies 711 VIII Cicero's theoretical works 715 ix Cicero and Roman philosophy 721 19 Religion 729 by MARY BEARD, Lecturer in Ancient History, and Fellow of Newnham College, Cambridge 1 The constants 729 11 Sources of evidence and the problems of comparison 734 Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 CONTENTS IX in Political and religious disruption 739 iv Neglect and adaptation 742 v Competition, opposition and the religion of the populares 745 vi Political dominance and deification: the divine status of Caesar and its antecedents 749 VII The differentiation of religion 75 5 VIII Roman religion and the outside world 763 Epilogue 769 by J. A. CROOK, ANDREW LINTOTTand ELIZABETH RAWSON S'tern mat a 777 Chronological table 780 BIBLIOGRAPHY Abbreviations page 799 A General studies 807 B Sources 811 a. Literary sources 811 b. Epigraphy and numismatics 816 c. Archaeology 821 C Political history 824 a. 146-70 B.C. 824 b. 70—43 B.C. 829 D The East 835 a. Mithridatica 835 b. The Jews 838 c. Egypt 842 d. Other eastern matters 845 E The West 847 F The law 849 a. Public law and criminal law 849 b. Private law 85 5 G Economy and society 861 H Religion and ideas 871 Index 878 NOTE ON THE BIBLIOGRAPHY The bibliography is arranged in sections dealing with specific topics, which sometimes correspond to individual chapters but more often combine the contents of several chapters. References in the footnotes are to these sections Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 X CONTENTS (which are distinguished by capital letters) and within these sections each book or article has assigned to it a number which is quoted in the footnotes. In these, so as to provide a quick indication of the nature of the work referred to, the author's name and the date of publication are also included in each reference. Thus 'Syme 195 2 (A 118) 100' signifies 'R. Syme, The Roman Revolution, 2nd edn, Oxford, 1952, p. 100', to be found in Section A of the bibliography as item 118. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 MAPS I The Roman world about 118 B.C. page 18 2 Italy and Sicily 42 3 Central Italy "7 4 The Pontic area 134 5 Asia Minor 138 6 Central Greece >5* 7 Latium 188 8 Spain 216 9 The East 230 TO Judaea 276 II Egypt }'* 12 Gaul 382 '3 Italy 426 14 The Roman world in 50 B.C. 566 TEXT-FIGURES Rome in the last two centuries of the Republic 71 The centre of Rome in the late Republic 370 XI Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008