The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Book, by Cyril Davenport This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. Title: The Book Its History and Development Author: Cyril Davenport Release Date: August 29, 2016 [EBook #52932] Language: English Character set encoding: UTF-8 *** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE BOOK *** Produced by MWS, Craig Kirkwood, and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images generously made available by The Internet Archive/Canadian Libraries.) The “Westminster” Series. THE BOOK [i] Golden Binding of “The Gospels of Charlemagne,” with Jewels and Enamels, 11th or 12th Century. [Frontispiece. Title page. THE BOOK ITS HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT BY CYRIL DAVENPORT, V.D. F.S.A. ILLUSTRATED LONDON ARCHIBALD CONSTABLE & CO. LTD. 10 ORANGE STREET LEICESTER SQUARE W.C. 1907 [iii] BRADBURY, AGNEW, & CO. LD., PRINTERS LONDON AND TONBRIDGE. [iv] TABLE OF CONTENTS. CHAPTER I. EARLY RECORDS. Rock inscriptions—Marks on wood—Quipus—Wampum—Modern ideographs—Indian palm-leaf books— Ideographs and alphabets—Diptychs p. 1 CHAPTER II. ROLLS, BOOKS AND BOOKBINDINGS. Papyrus and vellum rolls—Quaternions—The sewing of books—Headbands—The rounding and backing of books—Mediæval books—Irish cumdachs—Byzantine bindings—Oriental books—Modern methods of sewing and binding p. 26 CHAPTER III. PAPER. Paper—Watermarks and quiring p. 62 CHAPTER IV. PRINTING. Assyrian bricks with printed inscriptions—Oiron ware—Chinese types—Block books—Costeriana—Types and stereotypes—Printing presses p. 85 CHAPTER V. ILLUSTRATIONS. Wood engraving—Line engraving—Etching—Stipple—Mezzotint—Aquatint—Lithography—Photography p. 102 CHAPTER VI. MISCELLANEA. Book edges and their decoration—Embroidered books—Cloth bindings—Account books—End papers— Small metal-bound books—Books bound in tortoiseshell—Chained books—Horn books p. 141 CHAPTER VII. LEATHERS. Vellum—Calf—Pig skin—Sheep skin—Goat skin—Seal skin, etc. p. 169 CHAPTER VIII. THE ORNAMENTATION OF LEATHER BOOKBINDINGS WITHOUT GOLD. Blind tooling and stamping—Panel stamps—Cut leather—Stained calf—Cut vellum—Transparent vellum p. 181 CHAPTER IX. THE ORNAMENTATION OF LEATHER BOOKBINDINGS WITH GOLD. Gold tooling in leather introduced from the East to Venice—Early Italian gold tooled work—The spread of gold tooling in Europe—Modern work—Gold tooling in leather—Early Venetian gold tooled bindings— The work of Thos. Berthelet, John Day, John Gibson, Mary Collet, Samuel Mearne, Suckerman, Eliot and Chapman, Roger Payne, Richard Wier, Charles Hering, Kalthœber, Staggemeier, Walther, Charles Lewis, T. J. Cobden-Sanderson, Sir Edw. Sullivan, Douglas Cockerell, E. M. MacColl, S. Prideaux, Adams, Woolrich, Etienne Roffet, Geoffrey Tory, Nicholas and Clovis Eve, Le Gascon, Florimond Badier, Macé Ruette, L. A. Boyet, Padeloup le Jeune, J. le Monnier, Derome le Jeune, Capé, Duru, Thouvenin, Bauzonnet, Trautz, Lortic p. 205 INDEX p. 245 [v] [vi] LIST OF PLATES. 1. GOLDEN BINDING OF “THE GOSPELS OF CHARLEMAGNE,” WITH JEWELS AND ENAMELS, 11TH OR 12TH CENTURY. (See p. 54) Frontispiece 2. PAGE FROM WILLIAM CASLON’S “SPECIMEN OF PRINTING TYPES.” (LONDON, 1766) To face p. 98 3. PAGE FROM THE “HYPNEROTOMACHIA POLIPHILI.” (VENICE, 1499) To face p. 104 4. PAGE FROM CAXTON’S “MYRROUR OF THE WORLDE.” (LONDON, 1481) To face p. 108 5. “THE PEACOCK.” WOOD ENGRAVING BY THOS. BEWICK, FROM THE “HISTORY OF BRITISH BIRDS.” (NEWCASTLE, 1797-1804) To face p. 110 6. TITLE-PAGE OF GRIMM’S “GERMAN POPULAR STORIES.” (LONDON, 1824) To face p. 124 7. FRENCH SEVENTEENTH CENTURY BINDING BY LE GASCON. RED MOROCCO, INLAID WITH OLIVE AND CITRON MOROCCO AND GOLD TOOLED IN THE POINTILLÉ MANNER To face p. 238 [vii] Fig. 1.—Stone cist with ring marks. Found at Coilsford in Ayrshire. THE BOOK: ITS HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT. CHAPTER I. EARLY RECORDS. Rock inscriptions—Marks on wood—Quipus—Wampum—Modern ideographs—Indian palm leaf books—Ideographs and alphabets—Diptychs. The idea of making records by means of marks cut on stone or wood did not originate in any one place, for signs of it are found more or less all over the world wherever primitive man has existed. It was not until a comparatively late period that the various kinds of record keeping were unified after a fashion and true writing evolved itself out of the chaos. There are some forms of record keeping that have been largely used by the human race which, as far as we can at present tell, have not influenced our present form of book except negatively; but indirectly they may still have done so in some manner that we cannot distinguish. Mankind is naturally imitative, and among his early efforts in this direction are the scratchings on bones and antlers. They comprise outlines of deer, mammoths, reindeer, seals, bears, horses and other animals. Several instances of these early drawings have been found in the caves of the Dordogne in France. These, however, are not records, they are only pictures of what the artist saw, and a large proportion of rock and stone markings come into the same category. But there is no doubt that many of the latter are intended to commemorate certain events; they show groupings of marks, animals and men in positions and attitudes which are clearly intended to mean something, and now and then it has been possible to make a good guess at their interpretation. The earliest marks made by man that still exist are to be found among the rock markings or carvings, as these are often in protected places where the weather has not worn them away. Prehistoric caves and tombs are prolific in such treasures, and the marks, ideographs or hieroglyphics are always of the greatest interest. There seems to be some analogy between the great megalithic temples like that on Salisbury Plain and many of the rock inscriptions, but little is at present known on this point. Cup and ring markings on rocks or stones are among the most remarkable of rock inscriptions because they are not isolated as to their design. From Ireland to India these marks are found possessing the same radical forms, and it is impossible to avoid the conclusion that they have been made by tribes of men who had some thought or idea in common. What this idea was is still a disputed point among archæologists. Cup and ring markings are held by some authorities to be astronomical, sun signs, but these speculations, especially in Scandinavian examples, soon land us in pure symbolism, ring crosses, swastikas, triskeles and the rest. Apart from these, marks are found in the British Isles and in India particularly through which a dominant idea is clearly present. It seems likely that some common religious symbolism is really the key to the mystery, and this belief, disavowed by Sir J. Simpson, is strongly held by Col. J. H. Rivett-Carnac, as well as by many others. By these archæologists the cup and ring markings are considered to be the ideographic expressions of one of the primitive religions of the world which was very widely spread, and the remains of which exist in India at the present day. But even admitting the possibility of this interpretation, there are still many points left unexplained. For instance, in the drawing, it will be seen that the cups with their rings are cunningly attached to each other, and the whole design appears as if it “means something.” No doubt some day further light will be thrown upon this curious form of record. The Assyrian and Babylonian sculptures both in the round and in bas-reliefs are commonly covered with cuneiform inscriptions, and these are also plentifully found inscribed on stone stelæ and bronze figurines. The famous Rosetta stone is a familiar example of a tri- lingual inscription that will probably last as long as the world lasts. It is now in the British Museum, and bears an inscription in Hieroglyphic, Demotic and Greek. The Greek being understood, it gave at once the key to the interpretation of the Hieroglyphic. The date of the cutting of this stone is about the beginning of the second century before the birth of Christ. An earlier stone of a similar kind is known as the tablet of Sen; it contains a decree of the priests at Canopus in honour of Ptolemy Evergetes I. It was made in B.C. 238, but has not yet got to England. The ten commandments were engraved on stone, and instances of inscriptions on small stones are very numerous. From Egypt to North America amulets bearing mystical sentences have been commonly made. Familiar to most of us are the turquoises engraved with Arabic words run in with gold, and the curious “Garuda” and other stones, with magical [1] [2] [3] [4] Fig. 2.—Garuda amulet. Fig. 3.—Runic calendar on bone. inscriptions and credited with magical powers, have been common in the East from time immemorial. In India inscriptions, holy names, invocations and quotations are cut on small flat pieces of jasper, agate, onyx, carnelian, amethyst, hematite, jade, and materials of less value like coral or glass, some of the old and some new. Musulman amulets of similar kinds are also sometimes found on gold, silver, iron, and even on small bricks of baked clay. Many of these amulets have pierced ears for suspension, and they were worn as jewellery on the neck or ears or sewn on girdles. They were also fixed on weapons of war and horse furniture. Some of the stones are engraved in reverse so as to make impressions. These are seal stones, but the greater number are engraved simply so as to read straightforwardly. They are in Arabic, Persian, and rarely Turkish. Greek and Roman cameos and intaglios are often found bearing short inscriptions as well as the names of their engravers. Even the diamond has not escaped, but inscriptions on this stone are very rare because of the difficulty of engraving it. Numbers of inscriptions, names and mottoes can be found on ring stones of all times as well as on real stones. Curious Chinese books are made of leaves of jade, and in these inscriptions are cut in the decorative Chinese character, run in with gold. It should be noted that the forms of letters have always been much influenced by the manner in which they could be most easily made. It is easier to cut a square form of letter on stone than a cursive form, so we find that the majority of rock or stone inscriptions favour the square form rather than the rounded form of letter. We derive our angular forms of letters from the distant past, but the rounded forms are adapted from the later times of papyrus or vellum, when reed or pen writing was understood. Writings on metal have been made from time to time, but never very largely. In India inscribed plaques of bronze, kept together by metal rings, have been often used. Tablets of lead are recorded as having been used by ancient peoples, and Oriental as well as European talismanic formulæ have been engraved on small plates of silver, bronze, brass or lead, the letters being now and then damascened with gold and silver. In ancient Rome name-brands were cut in bronze, and impressions could have been printed from them. They were beautifully cut. The Nicene creed was cut in silver by order of Pope Leo III., and in the East strips of metal have constantly been substituted for the long thin pieces of palm leaf which formed the normal books. The metal leaves are found of gold, silver, or gilded copper particularly. The plates are quite thin, and the characters upon them are generally engraved, but sometimes they are chased with tracer and hammer. Such records are not only very permanent but they are also very decorative. The modern engraving of inscriptions on metal has mainly found refuge in monumental brasses, and in this case the letterings are usually run in with some pigment. Another primitive form of record is found in the case of notches cut in wood. A savage warrior of a literary turn of mind would naturally wish to keep some record of the number of his enemies that he had killed and perhaps eaten, and an obvious way of doing this would be to cut or scratch marks on his war club. Such records would, no doubt, become customary among war-like tribes. The handles of war axes or spears would offer excellent ground for such marks, and presently, especially in peace times, similar marks may well have kept tallies of the numbers of game killed. From such personal notes the transition to others of wider interest is not difficult, and so we find the notches used, on bits of wood or sticks, for almanacks and calendars. Ogham and Runic inscriptions follow the ancient idea of notches cut along an angular edge, and these notches and rods are the very distant ancestors of our modern types of metal; the German word “Buchstab,” meaning type, is etymologically “a wooden rod.” In Denmark and Sweden in ancient times almanacks were cut on flat pieces of metal, bone, horn, box, fir or oak. The majority of them are of wood, but the other materials were sometimes used. They are variously known as Rune staves or stocks, Prime staves, Messe dag staves or Brim stocks, and they are generally hinged along one side by cords run through holes, several slabs being thus fastened together. Wooden calendars are also often found among the records kept by primitive peoples; they have been found in Sumatra and in many other places. Similar almanacks were used by our Saxon ancestors, who no doubt borrowed the idea from the Scandinavians. One side was kept for the summer and the other for the winter, and notches for the days were made across the edges. [5] [6] [7] Fig. 5.—Modern hop-tally of wood. Fig. 4.—Staffordshire clog almanack. During the reign of Queen Elizabeth a modification of the Scandinavian Rune staves was largely used in England, chiefly in Staffordshire, but not exclusively. These are known as “clog almanacks,” and Dr. Plott says that “Clogg may mean Logg, or that they are like the cloggs with which we restrain our doggs.” English clog almanacks are squared pieces of wood, measuring from about two feet to nine or ten inches in length, and the larger ones are sometimes as much as three inches square. They are notched along the angles, small notches without ornamentation indicating week days, big notches stand for Sundays, and Saints days have all kinds of ornamental flourishes, which now and then show familiar forms such as Saint Catherine’s wheel and Saint Lawrence’s gridiron. Some of the clogs show a hole at the lower end, evidently so that they could stand upright upon a peg, others, and these are the most usual, have a flat pierced handle so that they can be suspended by a loop. They were commonly kept in churches. Details of several well known examples of clog almanacks will be found figured in The Reliquary for January, 1865, in illustration of an excellent article on the subject by Mr. John Harland. Exchequer and other wooden tallies were common in England in the 14th century, and in modern days a certain survival of them exists in the form of hop-tallies. These are two strips of wood which fit closely together with a tongue, and when in contact notches are made across the two edges in apposition, so that when the two pieces are apart, neither party can falsify the notches without it being at once apparent when the slips are finally brought together. The principle is exactly the same as that utilised in the old legal “indentures,” by virtue of which a piece of vellum was cut in two by an indentured, or toothed line, and if these did not exactly fit whenever they were brought together it became evident that they had been tampered with. In parts of France tallies like these are still used by bakers. Wooden tallies are also found among the inhabitants of Torres Straits, where they use them made of short sticks tied together at their tops. Curious inscriptions, as yet undecipherable, have been found at Easter Island; they are cut in thick slabs of wood and are ideographic. Bones have been from very early times the recipients of men’s marks; the earliest of these, however, were only copies of things seen. But inscriptions and symbols were presently scratched on them, and the blade bones of buffaloes in North America as well as the shoulder blades of sheep used by the Arabs are equally convenient for writing upon. In Sumatra inscriptions are commonly cut in flat pieces of bone. Instances of inscriptions in ivory are very numerous, and the finest examples of these occur in the case of the Roman consular diptychs which are described a little further on. Information as to direction is still often given by means of marks or “blazes” on trees, a survival of a primitive method, and American lumbermen or “loggers” cut hieroglyphic marks of ownership on their logs when they send them down stream. In times of trouble it often happens that primitive methods of communication are resorted to, like that received by a Cavalier from his lady love who heard that the Roundheads were after him—she sent him a feather, and he flew away and escaped. Such symbolical messages are common enough among savage tribes, but without some key it is almost impossible to interpret them. They are so various in their composition that no useful analysis of them can be made. On one such message from West Africa, strung on a string of flat fibre knotted at each end, are a bit of shell, a bit of fur, a bean, a cylindrical stick, a piece of leather, a mass of frog’s eggs or something like it, a flat piece of bark, a feather, a tooth and a shell. In another are two pieces of flat glass kept together with red thread, and two teeth on each side of it, all strung on fibre, and so on. The Battas of Sumatra use different and probably more elaborate messages, as they consist of carefully cut strips of wood, resembling the old spillikins with which our childhood’s days were made happy. These strips of thin wood, about three inches in length, are cut into various shapes which have no obvious collective meaning. In one of them is a capital model of a little broom, accompanied apparently by a series of little clubs and spikes. Such a message might have been sent by an absent brave to his squaw at home, and may have meant that if she didn’t sweep up the wigwam before his arrival she would experience the effect of one or other of the clubs. The Incas of Peru had a regular system of keeping records by means of coloured [8] [9] [10] [11] Fig. 6. Fig. 7. pieces of string knotted in a peculiar way. Fig. 8.—Peruvian Quipu. These knotted records, or Quipus, had special keepers who held office in the provinces, and the results of their energy were forwarded annually to the capital city for examination and preservation. The provincial keepers were called “Quipu Camayas,” and the records they kept were mainly statistics concerning the people of their districts. The knots were arranged either on a strong piece of cord or upon a stick, and formed a sort of fringe; the word “Quipu” means a knot. According to the position of the knot a certain number was probably indicated, and the class of person referred to is shown by the colour of the bit of string which represents it. But it is also likely that more elaborate interpretations could be made by skilled interpreters of Quipus. Little is really known as to that, but it is suggested by competent observers that, for instance, red meant war, yellow meant gold, white meant peace, and silver. But this is probably guess work. The same idea has been utilised in the case of a rare Chinese book, the leaves of which were of differently coloured silks. Each colour was supposed to convey a certain emotion to the student, and when he had exhausted the emotion caused by one colour, he turned over the leaf so as to experience the effect of another. The use of knots as reminders is not quite obsolete, as it is common enough even now to make a knot in one’s handkerchief, if anything easy is to be remembered. It is curious if this custom is really a survival of the Peruvian Quipu! A form of knotted record is used among several of the tribes in the Pacific Islands, and the Jewish “Taleth,” or scarf, has fringes which imply certain facts. The ordinary rosary with its ten beads for Ave Maria’s and single ones for Pater Nosters has also something in common with knots, and possibly the abacus of the Greeks and the Chinese may have a similar origin. But probably these last are only used as aids in mathematical calculations. Something analogous to the Peruvian knots is to be found in the tasselled and knotted fringes which adorn the ceremonial hats of dignitaries in the Romish church. The hats themselves are always of the same shape, round shallow crowns with broad brims. The fringes, however, differ in size and colour according to the rank of the wearer. The master cord is drawn through the brim of the hat at its inner edge, at a point over each ear, and kept in place by a large ornamental knot on the outside. The tassels start from one, and from this two others depend, and from these three, and so on, one more in each row. An abbot wears a black hat with six green tassels on each side; a bishop wears a green hat with six green tassels on each side on a gold cord; an archbishop has a violet hat with ten violet tassels on each side on a gold cord, and a [12] [13] Fig. 9.—Cardinal’s hat. Fig. 10.—Portion of North American wampum belt. Fig. 11.—Oriental palm-leaf book. cardinal has a red hat with fifteen red tassels on a gold cord, depending on each side. The wampum belts of North America were primarily used as money, but they were also made sometimes in such a way that they formed historical records. The true “Six Nation” wampum belts were made of little white and purple cylinders of shell very laboriously cut, and the purple ones very difficult to get. “Wampum” means white, and there is generally a preponderance of this colour. The short beads are strung upon long threads or strips of leather, and the design shows sometimes in purple on a white ground and sometimes in white on a purple ground. The designs are sometimes easy to decipher, like the belt which typifies the Iroquois League, showing the one heart of the ruling nation in the centre, and the allied nations, each shown by a square, united together in one bond. A very fine and interesting wampum belt was given as a record of friendship to William Penn at the Great Treaty in 1682, by the Sachems of the Lenni Lenape. It is now preserved by the Historical Society at Philadelphia. It is made of eighteen rows of white and purple cylindrical shell beads, the ground white and the designs in purple. The beads are laced upon nineteen parallel “horizontal” strips of leather by means of thinner strips running vertically across them and brought twice through each bead, one running being above the horizontal strip and the other below it. It is a curious way of stringing beads, and was practised in England some sixty or seventy years ago in the making of small bead ribbons. In the centre of the belt is a conventional figure of Penn shaking hands with the chief Sachem. Many of the wampum belts seem to have only geometrical designs upon them, but doubtless, without exception, these fine white and purple shell belts, cut with infinite patience and skill, and put together with the greatest care, always have some meaning. The Iroquois could, until recently, interpret them at once, but now they are less able to understand the work of their ancestors. There are plenty of imitation wampum belts, usually made of small shells or ordinary beads. The genuine belts are flat and strong, and the little shell cylinders nearly all of the same size. The imitations are much more irregularly and carelessly made, and they are often without any colour but white. A common form of book in Oriental countries consists of long narrow strips of palm leaf, kept together by two strings run through holes near each end. The writing upon the leaves is carried right along the length of each leaf in successive lines, and is scratched in, and usually strengthened by means of lamp black rubbed over it so as to stick in the scratches. This form of book rests by itself. Apparently it has never altered materially, neither has it in any way affected the production of the book as we know it. The palm leaves are brittle, they are troublesome to turn over, and are likely to split and break where the cord touches them. But the leaves are frequently made of stronger materials than palm leaf, some of them being of gold, silver, or gilded copper, and in these cases the lettering is engraved or punched. Others are written on plates of ivory, the letters being gilded, others again on plates of lacquer with letters inlaid with mother-of-pearl; indeed, the variety is large. The leaves are always enclosed between two covers of stronger make but of the same shape, and these covers are often very elaborately ornamented. Some of them have exquisite carved work and inlaid work and others are painted. In the case of Indian examples they are often messed over with red stains. When this is found the manuscript has belonged to some shrine, and worshippers have daubed it with rice and red paint as a sort of peace offering. The strings with which the leaves are bound together are also sometimes handsomely ornamented. Ancient rock inscriptions, tallies, quipus and wampums are all more or less ideographic, and among trade signs there are still many ideographs in common use, some of them of considerable antiquity. There are the three golden balls of the pawnbroker, which mean that money can be borrowed there. They are derived from the coat of arms of the Medici of [14] [15] [16] Lombardy. The Lombards were mediæval bankers and money lenders, and for their badge they took three of the golden balls, or pills, out of the Medici coat. These balls varied in number and colour, they were sometimes red, and sometimes blue, and three blue balls upon a white ground was one of the mediæval signs used by money lenders, but the three golden balls have proved more lasting. Another old ideograph is the white barber’s pole, with its red spiral, the image of the red bandage used to tie up an arm which had just been bled. It was originally the mark of a barber surgeon, but the barber still uses it although he no longer bleeds his clients. An old sign for a barber is also a shaving dish. This is oftener seen on the continent than it is here. The embowed arm holding a hammer is an old sign of a gold beater, and is generally itself gilded. It is clearly an ideograph, as is also the fishing rod with a golden fish, which is a usual sign over a fishing tackle maker’s shop. A modern instance of the same kind is a gilded ham which is not uncommonly seen over provision shops, quite a modern sign. The rapidly disappearing Highlander taking snuff is another modern ideograph. There are plenty more of such signs, most of which tell their story directly and simply, while others, the older ones particularly, may at first seem arbitrary, but often a little examination will reveal a simple origin. The curious hieroglyphics still used by gypsies are no doubt derived from Egyptian hieroglyphics, and although most of them have changed considerably, a certain resemblance in some of the forms can still be traced. Ideograms are still used in North America in out of the way places. A common mark for a cheese is a circle, and this sign was found opposite a farmer’s name, but he had never had one. He did, however, owe for a grindstone, and the draughtsman clerk had forgotten to put in the centre dot which would have marked the difference between the stone and the edible. In common use more or less all over the civilised world is the pointing hand, meaning either “Look there” or “This way.” Some signs are also ideographic in character; among these are certain of the deaf and dumb signs, and also some of the arm signals used in the navy. In the army some of the bugle calls imitate as far as possible the sounds to which they refer. For instance, the “prepare for cavalry” has some resemblance to horses galloping. Ideographs used in written languages soon change in character. No longer do they mean simply what they portray, but the sound of its name, and then by degrees they represented the first syllable, and eventually only the first letter of its name. These changes of meaning are accompanied by changes of form, and it is very curious to trace how an apparently arbitrary letter form is really only the survival of the main lines of an ancient ideogram. There are several most interesting instances of these changes given by Dr. Isaac Taylor in his classic “History of the Alphabet,” as well as by other writers on the subject, particularly Sir E. Maunde Thompson and Mr. Falconer Madan. Egyptian inscriptions show both ideographs, hieroglyphics and alphabetic signs, as there is usually a word spelt out in syllables or letters, and at the end of it the complete word shown as a little picture. The hieroglyphics altered into a style of writing which was not so pictorial about the nineteenth century B.C., and although alphabetical symbols were actually used as early as 4,000 B.C., yet it was very many years later than this that they became of general use. The earliest piece of hieroglyphic known is cut upon stone on a tablet now preserved in the Ashmolean Museum at Oxford. It is supposed to have been made about 4,000 B.C., and on it the name of King Send is written alphabetically. Our present alphabetic writing is by no means final, as it is even now undergoing a remarkable change, in which neither ideograph, hieroglyphic, nor alphabet plays any part. Shorthand will in time supersede our comparatively cumbrous process, and it is purely phonetic. Chinese writing is still in the syllabic state, but the Japanese, which is formed from it, has advanced many steps towards the alphabetical stage. The earliest handwriting known is that on the Papyrus Prisse, now in Paris. It is in Egyptian hieratic writing, and is supposed to date perhaps from about 4,000 B.C. The hieratic is a cursive form of hieroglyphic, and was used particularly by priests. We derive our present letters “longo intervallo” from Egyptian hieroglyphics, and the history of their evolution is full of interest. It may be well here to review rapidly how it is that we have acquired an alphabet for printing purposes which is clear, though not beautiful. Our present type shows two alphabets; one, the capital letters, are of Roman origin, the other, the small letters, are a modification of what are called Carolingian minuscules, and both alphabets have reached us through the Latin, Greek, Phœnician and Semitic. Up to the seventh or eighth centuries in Europe the various styles of writing were in a mixed condition, but about that time the different forms of letters began to arrange themselves, and to follow distinctive lines of development in different countries. Charlemagne interested himself in the matter, and saw that the time had arrived when something could be done towards clearing away the many difficulties which cropped up by reason of the different forms of letters which then existed. He caused careful studies to be made of existing styles so that some sort of common ground could be found. At Tours the Emperor set up a sort of Royal Commission to enquire into the matter, and at the head of it he placed a learned Englishman, Alcuin of York, who was known as a great student and was himself a calligraphist. Alcuin was trained in [17] [18] [19] Fig. 12.—Roman diptych. the beautiful Hiberno-Saxon hand, of which so many magnificent examples still remain—the Book of Kells, the Gospels of Lindisfarne, and several more. At Tours the Carolingian minuscules, which are the direct ancestors of our small, or lower-case letters, were developed. Our capital letters have developed themselves on different lines. They are like the ancient Roman types, which in the twelfth century had modified themselves somewhat and become very clear, and these forms commended themselves to the scribes of the Renaissance period, and underwent still more improvement in details. The early type cutters who formed their letters directly after the shapes of letters written by hand, soon saw that these capitals were not only easy to cut but were in every way the best they could find to copy. During some excavations at Pompeii in 1875 a large collection of small wax writing tablets or Pugillaria was found. These tablets resemble small slates; they are of wood, and one side is slightly hollowed out so as to receive a filling of blackened wax. Generally two of the tablets were hinged together, hence their name of diptychs, but sometimes they were in threes or even more, like a tail or “Caudex,” from which it is said we derive our word Codex. Diptychs are the direct prototypes of our modern books. The writing was marked on the wax by means of a style in the same way that writing was formerly done in England on the curious sand tables. These styles are usually of iron, sometimes inlaid with brass, but they were also made of bronze, brass, wood or bone. They always have one end pointed to write with and the other flat to erase with. A space was often left in the thickness of the wooden edge of a diptych to keep the style in. The erasing in the case of the diptych was effected by rubbing the flat end of the style over it, and in the case of the sand writing-tablet by a plasterer’s level or a good shake. Sand tablets have been used up to quite recent times in elementary schools. But the sand writing was always temporary, whereas the wax writing is very lasting, one of those found at Pompeii bearing the date A.D. 55. It records a payment to Umbricia Januaria, and is the earliest Latin manuscript known. Fig. 13.—Roman diptych stylus. Diptychs of similar form were widely used. They have been found in Egypt, and in England—remains of the Roman occupation—together with numbers of the styles used for writing with. Diptychs were kept together at the back by means of metal rings or thongs of leather, run through holes made in the wood, so that they are true prototypes of our modern books both as to form and manner of keeping together, the “stabbed” form of binding, that is to say, threads or bands or wires run through holes pierced along the back edge of the sections of a book, having been in continual use ever since rolls were first turned into books. When the diptychs were used as private letters they were further fastened with a tie or clasp in front, and this tie was often sealed with the sender’s signet in wax or clay. The Pompeian and all the other small wooden diptychs are unornamented, but at a later period, particularly from the second to the seventh century, Roman diptychs became of much importance and were often decoratively treated, being made of ivory and elaborately carved. Labarte, Gori, Westwood and Maskell have all written valuable works concerning these ornamental diptychs, and specimens of more or less excellence can be found in most museums that have any collection of carvings in ivory. The earlier examples are the best; later specimens rapidly decline in art value, although they are always of great historical interest. One leaf of one of the finest diptychs in existence is fortunately in the British Museum; it shows a full-length figure of an archangel with globe, cross and long-staff, and is supposed to have been made in the third or fourth century. A curious point about this leaf is its unusual size, about 16 by 6 inches, and it is said that such a piece could not be cut from any known elephant tusk. It is possibly mammoth ivory. For a long time the supreme power at Rome was vested in the consuls who held office for one year. Naturally anyone elected to this high position was anxious to inform everyone holding any high place or office of his accession to the dignity, and the usual way of doing this was to send round diptychs of ivory announcing the event, as well as subsequent ones concerning any other important matters which might occur during the consulate. Not only was the communication inscribed upon the wax, all of which is now gone, but the outside ivory was carved with invaluable portraits, scenes and inscriptions. By examining these carvings we can frequently ascertain who was the consul that issued them, and often enough we can find his portrait carefully drawn. In one of the many excavations made in the Forum at Rome, tablets containing a list of Roman consuls were found, and these serve as an official check upon our interpretation of the records existing upon the consular diptychs. Consular diptychs were generally larger than the wooden pugillaria, which were always small. Ivory diptychs are rarely [20] [21] [22] [23] [24] Fig. 14.—Byzantine diptych of ivory. Fig. 15.—Ivory diptych, of the consul Valentinian, A.D. 380. less than six or seven inches in length. The privilege of giving away finely carved ivory diptychs was highly esteemed, and in the fourth century the Emperor Theodosius issued an edict forbidding any but one of the two consuls, one at Rome and the other at Constantinople, to issue them. In the matter of consular and official costume the Roman carved ivory diptychs are of great importance. Figures often appear on coins or gems, but they are always very small. On the diptychs, however, they are sufficiently large to show full details. The subjects depicted on them are various. There are games, combats in the circus, scenes from the Passion, boys emptying sacks of prizes, figures of Saints, Adam and Eve, busts and portraits of consuls both in medallions and full length. The best collections of consular diptychs are to be found at Rome, Milan, Monza, Paris, Munich, Berlin, Liverpool and London. Besides the consular there are also ecclesiastical diptychs, the majority of which were probably only diverted from their original intention and altered and adapted to a new use. The original wax was removed and new inscriptions engraved on the ivory, mostly lists of martyrs or benefactors to the particular church which had possession of the diptych. There is one at Liège on which the names of the bishops of Tongres are written, and there is another similar one at Novara. It is probable that the liking for ivory carvings on books arose from the lead given by the ivory diptychs. Indeed in several instances the sides of ivory diptychs are actually inlaid in late bindings of MSS. WORKS TO CONSULT. Aglio, A.—Antiquities of Mexico. London, 1830-48. (Vol. 4, at end.) (Quipus.) Berger.—Histoire de l’ecriture dans l’antiquité. Paris, 1891. Gori, A. F.—Thesaurus reterum diptychorum consularium et ecclesiasticorum. Florentiae, 1759. Harland, J.—The Reliquary, Jan., 1865. (Clog almanacks.) Labarte, J.—Histoire des Arts Industrielles au moyen age. (Diptychs.) Paris, 1864-66. Lacroix, P.—Les arts au moyen age. (Diptychs.) Paris, 1809. Lubbock, Sir J.—Prehistoric Times. London, 1865. Madan, F.—Books in Manuscript. London, 1893. Maskell, W.—Ivories Ancient and Mediæval. London, 1875. Maskell, A.—Ivories. London, 1904. Plott, R.—Natural History of Staffordshire. (Clog almanacks.) Oxford, 1686. Prescott, W. H.—History of the Conquest of Peru. (Quipus.) London. Reinaud.—(Description des monumens Musulmanes du cabinet de M. le Duc de Blacas.) (Indian amulets.) Paris, 1828. Rivett-Carnac, J. H.—Prehistoric Remains in Central India. Calcutta. Rivett-Carnac, J. H.—Ancient Rock Sculptures in Kamaon. Calcutta, 1877. Simpson, Sir J. Y.—Archaic Sculpturings. Edinburgh, 1867. Smithsonian Report, 1879, p. 389. (Wampum.) Tavernier, J. B.—Voyages. Paris, 1810. Taylor, I.—The Alphabet. London, 1883. [25]