Archaeology and Biblical Studies Andrew G. Vaughn, Editor Number 14 The Bible and the Dead Sea Scrolls The Bible and the Dead Sea Scrolls by C. D. Elledge Society of Biblical Literature Atlanta The Bible and the Dead Sea Scrolls Copyright © 2005 by the Society of Biblical Literature All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying and recording, or by means of any information storage or retrieval system, except as may be expressly permitted by the 1976 Copyright Act or in writing from the publisher. Requests for permission should be addressed in writing to the Rights and Permissions Offi ce, Society of Biblical Literature, 825 Houston Mill Road, Atlanta, GA 30329 USA. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Elledge, C. D. (Casey Deryl) Th e Bible and the Dead Sea Scrolls / by C. D. Elledge. p. cm. — (Archaeology and biblical studies; 14) Includes indexes. ISBN-13: 978-1-58983-183-4 (paper binding : alk. paper) ISBN-10: 1-58983-183-7 (paper binding : alk. paper) 1. Dead Sea scrolls. 2. Bible—Criticism, interpretation, etc. I. Title. II. Series. BM487.E45 2005 296.1'55—dc22 2005016939 13 12 11 10 09 08 07 06 05 5 4 3 2 1 Printed in the United States of America on acid-free, recycled paper conforming to ANSI/NISO Z39.48-1992 (R1997) and ISO 9706:1994 standards for paper permanence. C ONTENTS Preface vii Abbreviations x . What Are the Dead Sea Scrolls and How Were They Discovered? ................................................................1 The Unlikely Discovery of an Ancient Library 1 Controversies Solved through International Cooperation 8 Major Publications of the Dead Sea Scrolls 11 . What Do We Know about the Archaeology of Qumran? ...............15 The Excavation of the Site 15 The Architecture of the Site 19 The Site, the Caves, and the Scrolls 23 The Cemetery 25 Qumran and Other Archaeological Sites 27 . Who Lived at Qumran and What Was Their Story? .........................33 The Breakup of a Revolution 33 The Qumran-Essene Hypothesis 36 The Righteous Teacher and His Adversaries 41 Life after the Righteous Teacher 46 Appendix: Josephus on the Essenes 48 . What Kinds of Ancient Writings Are Preserved among the Scrolls? .............................................................................55 Rules 55 Legal Writings 67 Searching the Scriptures 72 Hymns and Prayers 81 . Why Are the Scrolls Important for Understanding the Hebrew Scriptures? ......................................................................87 Th e Most Ancient Biblical Manuscripts 87 vi CONTENTS Anthologies, Rewriting, and Translation 90 Focus Point: Th e Psalms at Qumran 93 6. Why Are the Scrolls Important for Understanding Second Temple Judaism? ......................................................................97 Parties and Confl icts 97 Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha 102 Focus Point: Wisdom and Apocalyptic Traditions 105 7. Why Are the Scrolls Important for Understanding the New Testament? ..........................................................................115 Beyond Sensationalism and Conspiracy 115 Repentance in the Wilderness 118 Jesus and the Torah 120 Messianism and Resurrection in the Scrolls 123 Focus Point: Wisdom and Apocalyptic Th eology in Recent Jesus Research 129 Notes 131 Indices Ancient Writings 139 Modern Authorities 145 Ancient Persons and Places 147 P REFACE An excellent photographer is one who has mastered the art of capturing priceless moments. As opposed to video, which portrays entire series of events, a photograph captures lives, emotions, and scenes in one shining moment of intensity. A special moment during a wedding, a heroic play in a sporting event, a crying child—the joys, triumphs, and tragedies of such moments point beyond themselves. Although isolated moments on fi lm, they illumine the fascinating world in which we live and the enigmatic character of the human beings who inhabit it. Th e Dead Sea Scrolls provide us with a priceless “snapshot” of the world that shaped the emergence of the Bible. Th ey transport us back in time to the days of the Maccabees and Herod, Jesus and Hillel, Josephus and Paul. In the frail portraiture of fragments and scrolls, they have given us the visual remains of one shining moment in the long and complex story of the Bible. Th e purpose of this book is to provide an essential guide to what the Scrolls teach us today. Several excellent introductions to the larger fi eld of Qumran Studies have been provided elsewhere, especially those by James C. VanderKam, The Dead Sea Scrolls Today (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1994); Geza Vermes, An Introduc- tion to the Complete Dead Sea Scrolls (Minneapolis: Fortress, 2000); Lawrence H. Schiff man, Reclaiming the Dead Sea Scrolls (Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 1994); Hartmut Stegemann, The Library of Qumran (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1998); and Peter Flint and James C. VanderKam, The Meaning of the Dead Sea Scrolls (San Francisco: HarperSanFrancisco, 2002). Th e purpose of the current work is to complement these works in three regards. First, this book concentrates on what the Scrolls can teach us about the world of the Bible and the unique place of the Qumran Community within it. Relatively more attention is invested in topics directly related to the wider range of biblical literature, and relatively less is devoted to matters exclusive to Qumran studies. Th e book should, therefore, be read as a companion for all who desire to understand the world of the Bible more fully in light of historical research. It seeks to meet this objective in keeping with the other informative volumes of the Society of Biblical Literature’s Archaeology and Biblical Studies series. -vii - viii PREFACE Second, this book addresses some of the most common questions asked by nonspecialists. An unfortunate result of the vast and complex matrix of Scroll reconstruction, dating methodologies, peculiar vocabulary, and fragmentary manuscripts is that the Scrolls still remain largely inaccessible to general readers. To this day, knowledge of the Scrolls in the general public often consists of a few details about the publishing controversies of the 1980s, the dubious proposals of sensationalists, and scattered images of caves, deserts, and bedouin. In spite of their signifi cance, the vast majority of Bible readers have still never read a Dead Sea Scroll. Th e present book hopes to lead the general reader of the Bible through these frustrating barriers, in pursuit of a basic working knowledge that will generate a deeper appreciation for both the biblical world and the Scrolls. In order to remain accessible to a variety of readers, the book is organized around seven of the questions most frequently asked about the Scrolls: (cid:31) What are the Dead Sea Scrolls and how were they discovered? (cid:31) What do we know about the archaeology of Qumran? (cid:31) Who lived at Qumran and what was their story? (cid:31) What kinds of ancient writings are preserved among the Scrolls? (cid:31) Why are the Scrolls important for understanding the Hebrew Bible? (cid:31) Why are the Scrolls important for Second Temple Judaism? (cid:31) Why are the Scrolls important for understanding the New Testament? In the corresponding treatment, the most signifi cant evidence, terminolo- gies, and theories are presented, with the hope that readers will become more confi dent about asking their own questions about Qumran and its Scrolls. Each chapter introduces both traditional and more recent theories, rather than advancing new proposals. A concise treatment of these essential questions allows more time for reading the primary documents themselves in educational settings. Th ird, this book has the benefi t of culminating with the fi nal stages of the monumental publication of all the Scrolls. Many important Scroll fragments reassigned during the early 1990s have only recently been published. The announcement of Emanuel Tov in 2001 that all major publications of the Scrolls are now complete signals that this is an opportune moment to begin document- ing the contribution that the full corpus of material is making to the study of the biblical world. One fortunate result of this situation is that we can now also give greater attention to fascinating writings that have not always enjoyed a detailed treatment in other introductions, including Pseudo-Ezekiel; Bless, O My Soul; Songs of the Sage; Sapiential Work A; and other traditions. Furthermore, the recent explosion of interest in Qumran archaeology also demands that introduc- tions be updated to refl ect both traditional theories and new proposals. PREFACE ix I wish to thank all those whose generous aid has greatly contributed to my work. Prof. Andrew G. Vaughn, editor of the Society of Biblical Literature Archaeology and Biblical Studies series, provided the initial insight and encour- agement for me to undertake the challenge. I remain indebted to numerous conversations with Profs. James H. Charlesworth of Princeton Seminary and Émile Puech of the École Biblique, my original teachers in this fi eld. Profs. Henry W. Rietz, Michael Daise, and Lidija Novakovic informed me regard- ing the potential contents and usefulness of this work. I appreciate the ongoing contribution that Prof. Ehud Netzer has made to my understanding of con- temporary archaeological sites. Rebecca Waltenberger, a graduate student at the University of Chicago, provided a meticulous and insightful reading of an ear- lier draft. Th e Israel Antiquities Authority has always graciously allowed me to view manuscripts essential to my research. I thank Lowell Williams for permis- sion to use a photograph. Pat Francek of the Gustavus Adolphus College Media Services Department helped me produce a map. Finally, I am especially grateful to Bob Buller and the publications staff of the SBL for their excellence in the production of the manuscript. Conventions of abbreviation and documentation follow the Society of Biblical Literature Handbook of Style (ed. P. Alexander et al.; Peabody, Mass.: Hendrickson, 1999). Quotations of the Scrolls in English generally follow, with frequent revision, Florentino García Martínez and Eibert J. C. Tigchelaar, The Dead Sea Scrolls Study Edition (2 vols.; Leiden: Brill, 1997–98; paperback ed., Leiden: Brill; Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2000), and the volumes of the Princeton Th eological Seminary Dead Sea Scrolls Project (ed. J. Charlesworth et al.; Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1997–). Citations from the Bible follow the New Revised Standard Version. Citations of pseudepigrapha follow James H. Charlesworth, ed., The Old Testament Pseudepigrapha (2 vols.; New York: Dou- bleday, 1983–85). Quotations of Josephus and other ancient Greek and Latin literature derive from the volumes of the Loeb Classical Library (Cambridge: Harvard University Press), with occasional revision. Pictures are those of the author, unless acknowledged otherwise. C. D. Elledge Gustavus Adolphus College February 2005