The Feud of Friendship: The Battle over Religious Authority in Angevin England by Alexander K. Shaner Political and religious authority under the Angevin kings during the 12th and 13th century created conflicts, wars, and struggles for religious and political dominance between the ruling Plantagenet kings and the clergy. The Plantagenet Dynasty, as the following monarchs would be known up until 1399, were a powerful Franco-English noble family. A trademark of the Plantagenets was their significant dominions in both England and France and zeal for administrative and religious control over their kingdom.1 These kings viewed their authority as ordained by God with rights to regulate the Church, while the bishops and clergymen were weary of royal involvement. This dramatic struggle came to a head in the late 12th century with King Henry II of England and his once-friend and chancellor, Thomas Becket the Archbishop of Canterbury. Commonly known as the Becket Controversy, the struggle for religious power during this period created lasting implications for the future of religious and secular power in England. The Becket Controversy personified the monumental struggles between the King and the clergy over power in the Catholic Church in England under the Angevin kings. Both contenders for religious power sought legitimacy in appealing to ancient customs and outside actors. From a historical viewpoint, the Plantagenet Dynasty can be broken into smaller families. The Angevin rulers included Henry II, and his sons Richard I and John I of England. Henryʼs family originated as a noble family from Anjou, France̶hence, giving their name to the 1 The British Monarchy, “The Plantagenet’s and Angevin Dynasties,” History of the Monarchy,www.royal.gov.uk 1 succeeding royal dynasty from 1154 to King Johnʼs death in 1216. 2 The impact of the Angevin rulers extended from just pure political control. Each successive ruler increased administrative, cultural, economical, and religious control over both England and France, making both territories part of the Angevin Empire. In order to determine the cause of the controversy, a historical introduction to the various political and religious conditions present in Angevin England will illuminate the positions and cause of the controversy. After describing the foundations of the controversy, the responses taken by Archbishop Becket and King Henry II will show how their relationship represented the macro level struggle for religious power. Finally, the implications of this conflict show that the struggle between Church and State did not end here and that this struggle increased in scope and frequency for the remainder of the Middle Ages. After the death of King Henry I of England, a civil war ensued to decide who was to succeed the king. His daughter, Matilda, was promised the throne by her father, but Stephen of Blois, another relative, gained the support of many Norman groups.3 This struggle for succession ended over a decade later, in 1154, with the two sides finally recognizing Matildaʼs son, Henry Plantagenet, the count of Anjou, as King Henry II of England.4 Henry sought to unite powerful political forces in France as well as England in order to strengthen territory and power over the various regions. During the civil war preceding Henryʼs rule, the absence of a centralized royal authority created vacancies in local offices, and the growing power of local landlords was consistent with the begins of feudal obligations. Henry, as the first of the Angevin kings, ruled 2 History of the British Monarchy, www.royal.gov.uk 3 Wim Blockmans and Peter Hoppenbrouwers, Introduction to Medieval Europe: 300-1550, trans. Isola van den Hoven, (London: Routledge, 2007), 171. 4 Blockmans and Hoppenbrouwers, Medieval Europe, 171 2 vast amounts of land in Southern, Western, and Northern France, as well as his Kingdom of England. To increase political authority, Henry began to slowly fill vacancies in lordships in local lands. Henry ushered in the Angevin Dynasty and Empire with significant administrative and political control, making his kingdom one of the most powerful in Europe during the 11th and 12th Centuries.5 Before Henry, the center of political power in England was at the local level. The various shires and local lords dominated the decisions of national elites. As other kings before him, Henry had to navigate the complex and sometimes dangerous arrangement of local authority. Henryʼs political strategy for governing consisted of respecting pre-Norman conquest rights of Anglo-Saxon landowners and local lords, combined with the new Norman institutions of tax collecting and homage to the king of England.6 As a national figure, Henry could not simply ignore the concerns of barons and other local nobility. In a political system of local delegation, Henryʼs rule and policies depended upon input and support from local lords. In the beginning of Henryʼs reign, baronial insubordination became a dramatic threat to his rule. In 1156, just two years after his accession, Henry defeated an uprising by a noble, Hugh Bigod, and while the problem of insurrection was dampened, the issue of rebellion was never fully diminished.7 Like it or not, political power from the king flowed down to the local lords, who ultimately enacted policy. While not ruling under a limited or an absolute monarchy, Henry gained and maintained political power by repressing and subjugating local lords to follow his policies at Henryʼs behest. His style of leadership fused a hybrid monarchy where he was the supreme ruler of England, but 5 Richard Mortimer, Angevin England 1154-1258, (Oxford: Blackwell, 1994), 37 6 Mortimer, Angevin England, 6 7 Kate Norgate, England Under the Angevin Kings, (Franklin: New York, 1969), 120 3 he had local lords do his bidding. As the leader of the Angevin Empire, Henry had concerns of local problems in England as well as his territories in France, adding to the pressure to secure his power over his holdings. In order to temper local strife, Henry strove to consolidate courts and systems of administration under direct royal authority. With the creation of two courts, the Exchequer and the Curia Regis respectively, the control of finances and judicial proceedings fell under Henryʼs direct control.8 By centralizing financial and judicial authority early in his reign, Henry set the stage for a later growth in royal administration that conflicted directly with the Church. With royal authority precariously dependent upon local lords and nobles, Henry needed to ensure cooperation or at least repression of local opinions in order to achieve national power. The relationship between King and the Church was far more complex. For any king in Western Europe, one of the most difficult aspects of ruling was the conflict with the power of the Church. The growing power of the Catholic Church and the tremendous administration system made any political decisions by the king difficult. The advanced system of hierarchy in the Church and the subsequent reforms to remove secular authorities from the religious structure increased the divide between church and state. The development of canon law as a separate and binding form of legal codes challenged political authority of lords and nobles to control “their” local clergy and churches. Englandʼs canon law is made up of ecclesiastical decisions from clergy, the Pope, and other areas where religious councils and courts make decisions that form the basis for future decisions.9 The scope of clerical jurisdiction, especially within the legal system, prompted Henryʼs predecessors to increase royal control. Henryʼs steps to consolidate finances and judicial 8 J.R. Green, Henry the Second, (London: Macmillan and Co, 1925), 68 9 Mortimer, Angevin England, 106 4 proceedings under royal auspices tried to limit the jurisdiction of the clergy. Another area of conflict during the early years of Henryʼs rule was fought over wills and the authority to rescind land and whether this power belonged to clergy or the king.10 The significant overlapping of powers in the judicial system prolonged the battles between Henry and the clergy. Before the rise of Thomas Becket to Archbishop of Canterbury, the lines of conflict between Henry and the Church were beginning to increase in ferocity and frequency. The struggle for power between King Henry, Thomas Becket, and the Church dominated most of his reign, for better or for worse. After looking at the preceding years before the Becket Controversy, the stage is now set to begin to discuss how a friendship turned into a bitter rivalry for power in England. Thomas Becket, a son of a London merchant, worked his way into the royal administration from a clerk to the archbishop of Canterbury until he was made Chancellor under King Henry II. The chancellor position in the early medieval period was the highest administrative official under the ruling monarch.11 Soon, King Henry and Becket became close friends under vows of extreme loyalty shown by Thomas Becket to Henry. Under King Henryʼs many tactics to extend control and influence of local monasteries, Becket as the Chancellor became increasingly unpopular with many officials in the English Church while securing his own fortune from Henryʼs policies.12 After years of this friendship and loyalty between Henry and Becket, a vacancy appeared for the Archbishop of Canterbury, and in 1162, King Henry appointed his close friend and 10 Mortimer, Angevin England, 111 11 Blockmans and Hoppenbrouwers, Medieval Europe, 171 12 ibid, 172 5 chancellor, Thomas Becket, as the Archbishop of Canterbury.13 King Henry, with this appointment, appeared to have felt extremely confident in his plan to assert the kingʼs authority over the church due to Becketʼs relationship and loyalty to him; tragically, this could not have been further from the truth. With the appointment of Thomas Becket as Archbishop of Canterbury, King Henry now had his friend in the highest religious office in England. The Archbishop of Canterbury often served as the papal legate or the Popeʼs personal representative in England, and he was invested with all religious authorities in England second only to papal authority.14 The conflict between Henry and Becket arose almost immediately in 1163. For years, the ecclesiastical powers of the church over courts and trials of clergy had been a point of contention with King Henry. The king attempted to assert control over the trials and punishment of clergy, abbots, deacons, bishops and other church officials, while Archbishop Becket refused this move by saying that all officials were under oaths to the church, declaring the church as the proper avenue for trial and punishment.15 Roger of Hoveden, who was well positioned to chronicle the previous accounts of Henryʼs administration as a royal clerk, recorded this account. Writing in the early 13th Century, Roger was writing decades after the conflict of Henryʼs reign. While no explicit bias can be proven, Roger, as a royal clerk, could have certainly had an implicit bias by protecting the status of the Royal administration. King Henry increased royal power and administration over his reign. The establishment of a powerful royal bureaucracy may have granted Rogerʼs position, 13 ibid, 171 14 Mortimer, Angevin England, 111 15 Roger Hoveden, The Chronicle: “On the Disputes between Thomas Becket, Archbishop of Canterbury and Henry II of England,” trans. Henry Riley, Medieval Sourcebook: Fordham, (1998) http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/hoveden-becket.asp#1162, 1162 6 and he would be looking to ensure the accuracy and legitimacy of administrative authority by reflecting Henryʼs account rather than focusing on Becketʼs position. Not to be outdone by the Archbishopʼs refusal of his demands, King Henry attempted to force Becketʼs hand by issuing writs of obedience to all royally appointed officials in 1164. His once loyal friend, who served him unapologetically, now served another master even more faithfully, the Church, and Becket was determined to maintain his and the Churchʼs authority over all ecclesiastical matters.16 A minor disagreement over religious authority between Henry and Becket became a much larger symbolic struggle between the State and the Church, as each man represented the pressures, opinions, and desires of the two institutions. In January of 1164, King Henry summoned all religious officials to meet at Clarendon to work out an agreement between the role of royal authority with respect to ecclesiastical courts and officials. Throughout the meeting, Henry made Becket and other religious officials swear to obey and uphold the Kingʼs authority and decisions in ecclesiastical matters.17 Archbishop Becket accepted and told other officials to obey laws set by King Henry but to also save and preserve their obedience to God for other matters and laws.18 These proceedings were compiled into law and became known as the Constitutions of Clarendon, which marked a turning point in the struggle between Henry and Becket as the King demanded obedience and respect while Becket was less than sure to agree to these demands. Several provisions in the Constitutions concerning actions of the clergy are prohibited including leaving the country without the Kingʼs permission as well as all clergy are 16 Blockmans and Hoppenbrouwers, Medieval Europe, 172 17 Blockmans and Hoppenbrouwers, Medieval Europe, 18 Hoveden, “On the Disputes,” 1163 7 subject to the Kingʼs justice in addition to ecclesiastical punishments.19 King Henry also tried to solidify his control over appointments of abbots and bishops within the Kingʼs demesne, or lands under the Kingʼs control. The Kingʼs constitutions required these vacancies to be appointed by the King regardless of Church hierarchy.20 This means that even the archbishoprics of York and Canterbury, if under direct authority of the King of England, were subject to appointment and ratification by the King directly. The Constitutions of Clarendon, as they became known, dramatically increased King Henryʼs power over the ecclesiastical affairs of all church functions in England. However, Archbishop Becket did not agree to these demands for long. Shortly after the convention at Clarendon, Becket asked the King to repeal the acts, as he believed he entered into the agreement in sin and under duress. Becket claimed the agreements null and void, which incurred the anger of King Henry. Henry threatened all clergy with exile or punishment if they followed Becket in refusing to agree to the accords reached at Clarendon.21 King Henry actively campaigned among other religious leaders in England to oppose Becket and his supporters. Henry courted Roger, the Archbishop of York to agree to Clarendon. The feud between the Archbishops of York and Canterbury was well known, and Henry sought to turn the tables on Becket by securing the support of the Archbishop of York. Henry sought appeal to the Pope in Rome that Becket had ignored the Kingʼs justice and wished to cite Becket on perjury by refusing to agree to the agreements at Clarendon.22 Becket went to appeal to the Pope directly and escaped from England 19 Fordham Medieval Sourcebook, “The Constitutions of Clarendon,” trans. White and Notestein, 1915, Fordham Medieval Sourcebook, (1996). http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/cclarendon.asp 20 Fordham, “Clarendon,”1996 21 Hoveden, “On the Disputes,” 1164 22 Norgate, England, 39 8 in the end of 1164. The King of France openly accepted Becket, who went to Pope Alexander to discover that King Henryʼs loyal bishops were already presenting the Kingʼs case to the Pope. Becket laid the Constitutions of Clarendon at the feet of the Pope, who agreed with Becket and declared them void. On Saint Stephenʼs Day, Henry, angered by the Popeʼs decision, confiscated the lands and possessions of Archbishop Becket and banished all of Becketʼs followers from England.23 With Becket in exile in France, Henry sought to capitalize on Becketʼs absence and in 1165 reinstated the Constitutions of Clarendon and forced the Archbishop of York and other bishops to agree to uphold the documents and declare Thomas Becket as an outlaw living in France escaping the Kingʼs justice. For the next six years in exile, Thomas Becket continued his struggle for leverage in the battle against King Henry. Notably, Becket continued to garner the support of other bishops in England and declared the Constitutions of Clarendon banned and void.24 In 1167, Becket continued his campaign against Henry by excommunicating several loyal followers of the King and began to urge Pope Alexander III in Rome to intercede on his behalf to pressure the King to see Becketʼs claim and offer of reconciliation. Becket did not want to excommunicate the king, as he still believed in his repentance and reformation with Becket.25 In 1170, after many negotiations and diplomatic efforts between the Pope, Henry, and Becket, the King and the newly reinstated Archbishop Becket reached an agreement for Becket to end his six-year exile and return to England.26 23 Norgate, England, 39-41 24 Blockmans and Hoppenbrouwers, Medieval Europe, 172 25 Hoveden, “On the Disputes,” 1170 26 Blockmans and Hoppenbrouwers, Medieval Europe, 172 9 However, it soon became clear that Becket and the King would not forgive and forget their differences from the preceding decade. Throughout much of 1170, Henry and Becket agreed to remove condemnations and excommunications from those who suffered during their feud. An agreement that went back to the status quo before 1163 seemed to be on its way; however, on Christmas Day, 1170, the Archbishop continued with excommunicating several more of the Kingʼs officials: the Kingʼs patience ran out.27 The King, speaking to a group of knights, said, “what parcel of fools and dastards have I nourished in my house, that none of them can be found to avenge me of this one upstart clerk!”28 On December 29, 1170, four of the kingʼs knights̶Hugh de Morville, William de Tracy, Reginald Fitz-Urse, and Richard le Brenton̶ took the kingʼs words to heart and brutally murdered Thomas Becket during his prayers in Canterbury Cathedral.29 After a decade of conflict, Thomas Becket the man was dead; however, the problems for Henry continued as Thomas Becket the martyr forever damaged King Henryʼs reign. After Becketʼs murder, King Henry II of England was distraught with grief and for the rest of his reign tried to erase his involvement in Becketʼs death. King Henry made penance to Becketʼs grave and fasted in respect for Becket.30 Benedict of Peterborough recorded this account. Benedict was an abbot of Peterborough abbey granted by King Henry II. Benedict was also a close colleague of Thomas Becket, and his account of Becketʼs murder places the fault 27 Mortimer, Angevin England, 117 28 Norgate, England, 78 29 Norgate, England, 78 30 Benedict of Peterborough, “The Murder of Thomas Becket,” trans. Scott McLetchie, Medieval Sourcebook: Fordham, 1994. http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/1170benedict-becket.asp 10