THE BAN ON ABORTION AND THE POLITICIZATION OF WOMEN’S BODIES IN EARLY REPUBLICAN TURKEY BETWEEN 1923-1946 By Oguz Soylu Submitted to Central European University Department of History In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts Supervisor: Associate Professor Constantin Iordachi n o cti e oll Second Reader: Assistant Professor Noemi Levy-Aksu C D T e U E C Budapest, Hungary 2014 Statement of Copyright “Copyright in the text of this thesis rests with the Author. Copies by any process, either in full or part, may be made only in accordance with the instructions given by the Author and lodged in the Central European Library. Details may be obtained from the librarian. This page must form a part of any such copies made. Further copies made in accordance with such instructions may not be made without the written permission of the Author.” n o cti e oll C D T e U E C i Abstract This thesis explores the politicization of Turkish women’s bodies in early republican Turkey, between 1923-1946, with regard to the ban on abortion and socio-political discourses of motherhood propaganda. After the proclamation of the Republic of Turkey on October 29, 1923, the early republican regime granted many modernized rights to women within the project of women’s emancipation. However, at the same time, the new regime criminalized abortion and initiated strong pro-natalist policies by bringing reproduction under the state’s biological control. In addition, new legislations passed contained some articles which had unequal treatment of women and put them in a secondary position in their private lives, and new educational structures directed girls to take gendered lessons to be ideal mothers and virtuous wives. By analyzing these formations as an important background for the ban on abortion, this thesis explores the politicization of women’s bodies in terms of the ban on abortion, pro-natalist concerns, and their later mixing with eugenic discourses in which women were also strongly encouraged to bring up sturdy children for the future of the nation in addition to being expected to give more birth. At that point, the thesis also presents the legislations and social discourses regarding the idiosyncratic nature of eugenic concerns in order to show socio-political transformations began in the 1930s. By benefiting the contemporary journals, books, and newspaper stories, on this thesis also shows the social representation of strict slander of abortion and glorification cti e oll of motherhood in early republican Turkey. C D T e U E C ii Acknowledgments I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my supervisor Prof. Constantin Iordachi for his invaluable feedback that provided new perspectives and for his constant support. I am also grateful to my second reader Prof. Noemi Levy-Aksu for her eye-opening feedback and constant support. Furthermore, I want to express my gratitude for each faculty member of the Department of History at CEU for providing me an invaluable academic year. I am also thankful to my previous professors, Nuray Bozbora and Nurşen Gürboğa, from my bachelor studies, for their important ideas and suggestions regarding the literature. I am sincerely grateful to my sister Aslı Ayar and my aunt Melahat Yurtsever for their support, not only during this thesis-writing period, but in every step I have taken in my life. Last but not least, I am also sincerely grateful to my grandparents Kadriye and Hüseyin Yurtsever and my parents Sebat and Yavuz Soylu who deserve much more than these remarks here for supporting me throughout my life and making an effort for me to get to where I am today. n o cti olle C D T e U E C iii Table of Contents Statement of Copyright ......................................................................................................................... i Abstract .................................................................................................................................................ii Acknowledgments ................................................................................................................................ iii Table of Contents ................................................................................................................................. iv INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................................................. 1 CHAPTER 1: THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK, METHODOLOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS, AND DEFINITIONS OF KEY TERMS .................................................... 9 1.1 Theoretical Framework of the Thesis ................................................................................. 10 1.2 Methodological Considerations and Definitions of Key Terms ......................................... 16 CHAPTER 2: THE PROJECT OF WOMEN’S EMANCIPATION AND THE CONSTRUCTION OF NEW GENDER ROLES BY THE EARLY REPUBLICAN REGIME ........................................................................................................................................... 25 2.1 The Project of Women’s Emancipation and the New Image of Turkish Woman .................... 26 2.2 Articles that Had Unequal Treatment of Women and Some Educational Structures of the Early Republican Regime ........................................................................................................................ 33 CHAPTER 3: THE CONTEXT OF THE BAN ON ABORTION, EUGENIC DISCOURSES, AND THEIR SOCIAL REPRESENTATION IN THE EARLY REPUBLICAN PERIOD ..... 43 3.1 History of the Ban on Abortion in the Last Decades of the Ottoman Empire .......................... 44 3.2 The Ban on Abortion in the Early Republican Period and Its Changing Context with Eugenic Concerns during the 1930s and Early 40s ...................................................................................... 48 3.3 Social Representation Analysis of Abortion, Pro-natalism, and Eugenic Discourses .............. 65 CONCLUSION ................................................................................................................................. 77 BIBLIOGRAPHY .............................................................................................................................. 84 Primary Sources ............................................................................................................................. 84 n o cti Secondary Sources ......................................................................................................................... 87 e oll C D T e U E C iv INTRODUCTION The duty of Turkish woman is to raise generations who are strong enough to preserve and defend Turkish people with their mentality, physical power, and tenacity. The woman who is the source of the nation and the essence of social life can perform her duty as long as she is virtuous. It is unquestionable that woman should be very advanced.1 These statements made in 1925 by Mustafa Kemal Atatürk (hereafter Mustafa Kemal) who was the founder of the Republic of Turkey are illustrative of the new political vision on the established gendered roles and responsibilities in early republican Turkey. After the proclamation of the Republic of Turkey on October 29, 1923, the early republican regime2 granted women many rights such as to divorce, have education, share equal inheritance, work, and vote in local elections in 1930 and in national parliamentary elections in 1934. However, the project of women’s emancipation promoted by the early republican regime had its limits. Women were emancipated in the public life, but at the same time the early republican regime laid new duties and responsibilities on Turkish women by strongly encouraging them to be ideal mothers and virtuous republican wives of the new state system in addition to their expected integration with the public sphere and working life. While giving Turkish women many new and modernized rights in order to provide their emancipation, the early republican regime established new civil, criminal, and labor laws and new secular educational structures which determined the limits of women’s emancipation and their familial and maternal roles. n o cti e oll C D T e U 1 Atatürk Kültür, Dil ve Tarih Yüksek Kurumu: Atatürk Araştırma Merkezi [Turkish: Supreme Institution of E C Ataturk Culture, Language, and History: Ataturk Research Center], Atatürk’ün Söylev ve Demeçleri: I-III [Turkish: Ataturk’s Discourses and Speeches: I-III] (Türk Tarih Kurumu Basımevi, 1997), vol. 2, p.242, accessed on January 31, 2014, http://kitaplar.ankara.edu.tr/dosyalar/pdf/552.pdf Here is the original text in Turkish translated by me: “Türk kadınının vazifesi, Türk’ü zihniyetiyle, bazusiyle, azmiyle muhafaza ve müdafaaya kadir nesiller yetiştirmektir. Milletin menbaı, hayatı içtimaiyenin esası olan kadın, ancak faziletkâr olursa vazifesini ifa edebilir. Herhalde kadın çok yüksek olmalıdır.” 2 Generally, the term “the Kemalist regime” is used in the literature. Instead, I use “the early republican regime” although some scholars have used the former in order to define also other periods after Mustafa Kemal’s death in 1938. With the term “the early republican regime,” I refer to the period of 1923-1946 which is the scope of my thesis. Yet, when I refer to or quote from other sources, I will use the term “the Kemalist regime.” 1 The above-mentioned legal frameworks and socio-political structures shaped the lives of women by mostly limiting their roles in private lives and stressing the primary role of women as motherhood. In addition, the press in interwar Turkey made propaganda substantially on the subjects of motherhood and abortion. While women were expected to be more visible and modernized in the public life through the early republican reforms, motherhood was imposed by the early republican regime. Pro-natalist concerns became crucial in early republican Turkey, which resulted in shaping the new two-tier image of Turkish woman. The early republican regime gave much importance to increasing the country’s population which was diminished by the long-standing wars conducted by the Ottoman Empire during the last decades of its existence. In this context, the early republican regime criminalized abortion on March 1, 1926, which had been criminalized in the late Ottoman period before. Women’s wombs were politicized and taken under the biological control of the state. Motherhood was glorified and there was a strong public discourse regarding the procreative nature of Turkish women. With the turn of the 1930s, politicization of women’s bodies and population concerns went further owing to Turkish eugenic ideas in the socio-political conjuncture. Women were not only forced to have more children but also expected to raise strong and healthy generations in order to protect the future well-being of the race. Taking women’s n o cti procreation under control by the state was legitimated by racial statements. This also e oll C affected the legal context which caused changes in 1936 within the Turkish Criminal Law D T e U including a stricter ban on abortion. The early republican regime changed the title of the E C section related to abortion to Felonies against the Integrity and Health of the Race in 1936. Marriage was strictly controlled by the early republican regime and childcare was given very much importance for the sake of the race. Pro-natalism was mixed with eugenic concerns and the early republican regime brought some limitations to specified social 2 groups about marriage and procreation. Contemporary journals, books, and social discourse also reflected all these legal changes and began a strong propaganda of pro-natalism which was mixed with concerns of the well-being of the race. The early republican period and its reforms3 have been subject to considerable research. Especially, with the beginning of the 1980s, the early republican regime’s legal frameworks and the project of women’s emancipation began to be criticized in Turkey. The post-1980 literature, especially the second-wave or the post-1980 feminism of Turkey,4 advanced a critical perspective on women’s emancipation in early republican Turkey by revealing its limits. This discourse not only brought a critical analysis of the project of Turkish women’s emancipation but also a critical and analytical perspective on the early republican discourses and its legal frameworks, in its entirety. Several works on the instrumentalization of the image of the Turkish need to be discussed within the context of this thesis. In an article on “Kemalism and Turkish Women,”5 Zehra F. Arat points out that the Kemalist project of women’s emancipation was limited in its aims. It is claimed in her article that male citizens were put at the center of the new nation-system in addition to the fact that the regime sacralized motherhood and this legal framework created a division of labor within the family structures which worked against gender equality.6 In addition to analyzing gendered educational structures within the n o cti e Kemalist regime, Arat also shows the articles from the Civil Law, Criminal Law, and Labor oll C D T 3 In the literature, the reforms made after the establishment of the Republic of Turkey were generally called e U “the Kemalist reforms.” Instead, I will use the term “the early republican reforms” in order to indicate the E C reforms made after the establishment of Turkey except when I refer to or quote from the literature that used the term “the Kemalist reforms.” 4 This term is applicable to the feminists in Turkey who started to develop a discourse in the 1980s against any kind of inequality to women such as pressures in private lives, patriarchal structures in society, and some of the legal frameworks provided by the early republican regime. See: Serpil Çakır, “Feminism and Feminist History-Writing in Turkey: The Discovery of Ottoman Feminism,” Aspasia, vol. 1 (2007), accessed on February 1, 2014, http://dx.doi.org/10.3167/asp.2007.010104 and Necla Arat, Feminizmin ABC’si [Turkish: The ABC of Feminism] (Ankara: Say Yayınları, 2010). 5 Zehra F. Arat, “Kemalism and Turkish Women,” Women and Politics, vol. 14, issue. 4 (1994), accessed on February 8, 2014, http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1300/.U5MieaglnAs 6 Ibid., p. 61. 3 Law that had unequal treatment of women compared to male members of the family. Regarding the new image of Turkish woman during the nation-building process of the Republic of Turkey, another important source from the literature is the MA thesis entitled “Türkiye’de Uluslaşma Sürecinde Milliyetçiliğin Kadın İmgesi”7 by Güven Gürkan Öztan. Öztan argues that women were used as a means by the early republican regime to achieve its educational, historical, economic, and socio-cultural goals. The thesis devotes a chapter to pro-natalist and eugenic discourses of the 1930s and 40s, and it explores the manner in which women’s bodies were taken under the biological control of the state. The ban on abortion, reproduction, and citizenship formation are discussed by Ruth Miller in the article “Rights, Reproduction, Sexuality, and Citizenship in the Ottoman Empire and Turkey.”8 Starting with the case studies of the late Ottoman period and the interwar years of the Republic of Turkey, Miller analyzes the gradual inclusion of the gender concept into the Ottoman and Turkish legal systems; the historical background of the ban on abortion and its justifications; perspectives of abortion, rape, and adultery in the Ottoman, Turkish, French, and Italian legal systems in a comparative manner; and the politicization of women’s wombs and reproduction roles. In respect of the comparison of the ban on abortion between the late Ottoman Empire and the Republic of Turkey, Ece Cihan Ertem explores the historical background of the ban on abortion in the last decades of n o cti the Ottoman Empire and the continuation of pro-natalist concerns in the early republican e oll C period despite its changed discourses, in “Anti-Abortion Policies in Late Ottoman Empire D T e U and Early Republican Turkey: Intervention of State on Women’s Body and E C 7 Güven Gürkan Öztan, “Türkiye’de Uluslaşma Sürecinde Milliyetçiliğin Kadın İmgesi” [Turkish: “Woman Image of Nationalism during the Nation-Building Process in Turkey”], (MA Thesis, Marmara University, 2004). 8 Ruth A. Miller, “Rights, Reproduction, Sexuality, and Citizenship in the Ottoman Empire and Turkey,” Journal of Women and Culture in Society, vol. 32, no. 2 (Winter 2007), accessed on February 4, 2014, http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/508218 4 Reproductivity.”9 The author claims that with the introduction of the politicization of women’s bodies in the public sphere, women’s bodies became state’s interference areas and their identities were reduced to motherhood during the early period of the Republic of Turkey. With regard to the comparison of abortion and reproduction, another article by Miller, entitled “Politicizing Reproduction in Comparative Perspective: Ottoman, Turkish, and French Approaches to Abortion Law,”10 provides a detailed analysis of the historical background of the politicization of reproductive behavior in the Ottoman Empire, the Republic of Turkey, and France. The author also explains the criminalization of abortion through biopolitical transformation, nation-state structures, and pro-natalist concerns starting in the 19th century. Regarding the idiosyncratic socio-cultural and political conjuncture of Turkish eugenics in terms of politicization of women’s bodies in the early republican period, in “Eugenics, Modernity and Nationalism,”11 Ayça Alemdaroğlu highlights the importance of eugenic discourses in interwar Turkey which were mixed with pro-natalist policies. After giving a summary of the history of eugenic formations throughout the world, the author explains the origins of eugenic opinions in early republican Turkey which were shaped by socio-political environment and different types of eugenics in interwar Europe. n o cti e Alemdaroğlu provides an overview of the socio-political transformation of Turkey and a oll C D concise analysis of legislative changes with regard to eugenic concerns in the 1930s. T e U E C 9 Ece Cihan Ertem, “Anti-Abortion Policies in Late Ottoman Empire and Early Republican Turkey: Intervention of State on Women’s Body and Reproductivity,” Fe Journal, vol. 3, no. 1 (2011), accessed on February 8, 2014, http://cins.ankara.edu.tr/abortion.pdf 10 Ruth A. Miller, “Politicizing Reproduction in Comparative Perspective: Ottoman, Turkish, and French Approaches to Abortion Law,” Hawwa, vol. 5, issue. 1 (April 2007). 11 Ayça Alemdaroğlu, “Eugenics, Modernity and Nationalism,” in Social Histories of Disability and Deformity, ed. David Turner and Kevin Stagg (London: Routledge Publishing, 2006), accessed on March 26, 2014, http://en.booksee.org/book/1244486 5