THE ARTICLE 19 FREEDOM OF EXPRESSION HANDBOOK International and Comparative Law, Standards and Procedures August 1993 © ARTICLE 19 ISBN 1 870798 17 1 The ARTICLE 19 Freedom of Expression Handbook THE ARTICLE 19 FREEDOM OF EXPRESSION HANDBOOK International and Comparative Law, Standards and Procedures CONTENTS Acknowledgements ............................................................................................................................. vi Preface ................................................................................................................................................ vii Invitation to Readers ........................................................................................................................... ix Members of the Advisory Panel ......................................................................................................... xi List of Contributors ............................................................................................................................ xii Abbreviations .................................................................................................................................... xiv Table of Cases ................................................................................................................................... xv PART I INTERNATIONAL AND COMPARATIVE FREEDOM OF EXPRESSION LAW: ITS ROLE IN NATIONAL COURTS ........................... 1 Chapter 1The Importance and Use of International and Comparative Law: The Indian Experience by Soli Sorabjee ................................................................ 3 Chapter 2International Instruments: Freedom of Expression Provisions .................................. 8 2.1 The Universal Declaration of Human Rights .............................................................................. 8 2.2 The International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights ........................................................ 10 2.3 African Charter on Human and Peoples' Rights ........................................................................ 11 2.4 American Convention on Human Rights and American Declaration of the Rights and Duties of Man ..................................................... 12 2.5 European Convention on Human Rights ................................................................................... 13 2.6 Comparison of the Protections Afforded by the Human Rights Treaties and Instruments........................................................................................................................... 15 2.6.1 General Obligations .................................................................................................... 15 2.6.2 Right to Hold Opinions Without Interference ............................................................ 16 2.6.3 Right to Seek, Receive and Impart Information and Ideas ........................................ 16 2.6.4 Kinds of Information and Ideas Protected .................................................................. 16 2.6.5 Permissible Grounds for Restrictions ......................................................................... 16 2.6.6 Permissible Restrictions on Freedom of Assembly and Association ............................................................................................................. 17 2.6.7 Relation between the Right to Freedom of Expression and Other Treaty Rights ......................................................................................... 18 2.7 European Community ................................................................................................................ 20 2.8 Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe ................................................................. 21 Chapter 3Relevance of International and Comparative Law in National Courts ................... 24 - i - The ARTICLE 19 Freedom of Expression Handbook 3.1 Three Ways in Which International Law May be Applied by National Courts ....................... 24 3.1.1 Treaty Law ................................................................................................................. 24 3.1.2 Customary International Law .................................................................................... 25 3.1.3 Aid in Construing National Law ................................................................................ 26 3.2 Use of International and Comparative Law by National Courts ............................................... 28 3.2.1 Common Law Jurisdictions .................................................................................................. 28 3.2.2 Civil Law Jurisdictions in Europe and Asia ........................................................................... 36 3.2.3 Use of the African Charter on Human and Peoples' Rights ................................................... 42 3.2.4 Use of the American Convention on Human Rights .............................................................. 44 3.3 Use by one International Tribunal of the Law of Another ........................................................ 45 PART IIJUDGMENTS OF NATIONAL COURTS AND INTERNATIONAL TRIBUNALS ...................................................................... 47 Introduction to Part II ............................................................................................... 49 Chapter 4Positive Protections of Freedom of Expression and Information ............................. 51 4.1 Importance of Freedom of Expression Generally ..................................................................... 51 4.2 Political Expression and Information ........................................................................................ 54 4.2.1 General Protections .................................................................................................... 54 4.2.2 Right of Government Opponents to Have Their Views Published by Government-Controlled Media ......................................................................... 57 4.2.3 Other Election Campaign Issues ................................................................................ 60 4.2.4 Private Interference with Political Expression .......................................................... 62 4.2.5 Parliamentary Privilege .............................................................................................. 62 4.3 Symbolic Speech ........................................................................................................................ 63 4.4 Matters of General Public Interest ............................................................................................. 64 4.5 Press Freedom and the Public's Right to Know ........................................................................ 65 4.5.1 General Principles ...................................................................................................... 65 4.5.2 Access to Newsprint ................................................................................................... 68 4.5.3 Government Subsidies ............................................................................................... 70 4.5.4 Freedom of Circulation and Distribution .................................................................. 70 4.5.5 Right to Determine Format of Presentation .............................................................. 71 4.5.6 Right to Gather Information ...................................................................................... 72 4.6 Broadcasting Freedom ............................................................................................................... 73 4.7 Media Pluralism ......................................................................................................................... 77 4.8 Artistic Expression ..................................................................................................................... 80 4.9 Academic and Educational Freedom ......................................................................................... 80 4.10 Commercial Advertising ........................................................................................................... 83 4.11 Language Rights ........................................................................................................................ 87 4.12 Access to Information ............................................................................................................... 89 4.12.1 Government-Held Information ............................................................................... 91 4.12.2 Court Hearings and Documents ............................................................................... 96 4.13 Freedom of Peaceful Assembly ................................................................................................ 98 4.14 Freedom of Association .......................................................................................................... 101 - ii - The ARTICLE 19 Freedom of Expression Handbook 4.15 Persons Entitled to the Right to Freedom of Expression ....................................................... 104 4.15.1 Non-Citizens .......................................................................................................... 104 4.15.2 Prisoners and Other Convicted Persons ................................................................ 105 4.15.3 Public Employees ................................................................................................... 105 4.15.4 Military Personnel .................................................................................................. 107 4.15.5 Corporate and Other Legal Entities ....................................................................... 108 4.15.6 Members of Professions ......................................................................................... 108 Chapter 5 Assessing the Legitimacy of Restrictions ........................................................... 109 5.1 International Standards ............................................................................................................ 109 5.1.1 European Convention on Human Rights ................................................................. 110 5.1.2 American Convention on Human Rights ................................................................ 111 5.2 National Standards .................................................................................................................. 112 Chapter 6 Restrictions Based on Threats to National Security or Public Order ........... 114 6.1 National Security ...................................................................................................................... 114 6.2 Protection of Public Order ....................................................................................................... 121 6.2.1 International Cases ................................................................................................... 121 6.2.1.a Human Rights Committee ..................................................................... 121 6.2.1.b European Court of Human Rights ......................................................... 123 6.2.2 United States Jurisprudence: Advocacy v. Incitement ............................................ 124 6.2.3 Seditious Libel: Common Law Jurisdictions .......................................................... 127 6.2.3.a Intent to incite violence .......................................................................... 127 6.2.3.b Incitement to violence or breach of the peace ....................................... 129 6.2.3.c Likely to excite ill-will ........................................................................... 132 6.2.4 Criticism of Government ......................................................................................... 134 6.2.5 Peaceful Assembly or Other Lawful Expression Met by Hostile Crowd ......................................................................................... 142 Chapter 7 Content-Related Restrictions .............................................................................. 146 7.1 Defamation ............................................................................................................................... 146 7.1.1 Decisions of the European Court of Human Rights ................................................ 146 7.1.2 National Courts: Balancing of Interests ................................................................... 151 7.1.3 Public Officials and Other Public Figures ............................................................... 152 7.1.4 Local Government Bodies ....................................................................................... 155 7.1.5 Defences: Good Faith, Truth, Fair Comment and Public Interest .......................... 157 7.1.6 Extreme Statements of Opinion ............................................................................... 162 7.2 Invasion of Privacy ................................................................................................................... 162 7.3 Right of Reply .......................................................................................................................... 165 7.4 Advocacy of National, Racial or Religious Hatred ................................................................. 167 7.5 Insult to National Institutions ................................................................................................... 173 7.5.1 Head of State ............................................................................................................ 173 7.5.2 National Symbols ..................................................................................................... 174 7.6 Authority of the Judiciary, Contempt of Court and Right to a Fair Trial ............ 175 7.6.1 Decisions of the European Court of Human Rights ................................................ 175 7.6.2 Comments on Matters Pending Before a Court ...................................................... 177 - iii - The ARTICLE 19 Freedom of Expression Handbook 7.6.3 Criticism of the Courts ............................................................................................. 181 7.6.4 Procedural Matters ................................................................................................... 184 7.7 Compelled Disclosure of Journalists' Sources ............................................................... 184 7.8 Duty of Confidentiality ............................................................................................................ 189 7.9 Blasphemy and Protection of Public Morals ........................................................................... 193 7.10 Property Rights of Others ........................................................................................................ 195 Chapter 8 Prior Censorship .................................................................................................. 198 8.1 Injunctions Against Publication ............................................................................................... 198 8.2 Newspapers: Licensing Requirements, Suspensions and Special Taxes ............................................................................................................... 202 8.3 Licensing of Journalists ............................................................................................................ 205 8.4 Customs and Trans-Border Controls ....................................................................................... 206 Chapter 9 Non-Content Based Regulation .......................................................................... 208 9.1 Time, Place and Manner Restrictions ...................................................................................... 208 9.1.1 General Principles .................................................................................................... 208 9.1.2 Permits for Marches, Assemblies and Other Means of Expression ...................... 210 9.2 Regulation of Broadcasting ....................................................................................................... 213 PART IIIINTERGOVERNMENTAL BODIES THAT ACCEPT FREEDOM OF EXPRESSION COMPLAINTS ............................................. 217 Introduction to Part III............................................................................................. 219 Chapter 10 Filing Individual Complaints .............................................................................. 221 10.1 Reasons for Filing with an Intergovernmental Body ............................................................ 221 10.2 Treaty-Based Bodies .............................................................................................................. 222 10.2.1 UN Human Rights Committee ............................................................................. 222 10.2.2 Inter-American Commission and Court of Human Rights .................................. 223 10.2.3 European Commission and Court of Human Rights ............................................ 224 10.2.4 African Commission on Human and Peoples' Rights .......................................... 225 10.2.5 Procedural Requirements of the Treaty-Based Bodies ........................................ 226 10.2.5.a Who may file ...................................................................................... 226 10.2.5.b States against which communications may be filed ......................... 227 10.2.5.c Substance of the violations ................................................................ 227 10.2.5 d Exhaustion of domestic remedies ...................................................... 227 10.2.5.e Timeliness .......................................................................................... 229 10.2.5.f Duplication and choice of forums ...................................................... 230 10.2.5.g Confidentiality .................................................................................... 230 10.2.5.h Content of communications ............................................................... 231 10.3 UN Non-Treaty Bodies .......................................................................................................... 231 10.3.1 Commission on Human Rights ............................................................................. 231 10.3.2 Sub-Commission on Prevention of Discrimination - iv - The ARTICLE 19 Freedom of Expression Handbook and Protection of Minorities ..................................................................... 232 10.3.3 Working Group on Arbitrary Detention ............................................................... 232 10.3.4 Special Rapporteur on Freedom of Expression .................................................... 235 10.3.5 UNESCO Committee on Conventions and Recommendations .......................... 235 APPENDICES A Relevant Provisions of International Instruments .............................................................. 239 B Treaty Ratifications and Accessions ................................................................................... 253 C Bangalore Principles .......................................................................................................... 261 D Selected Bibliography ......................................................................................................... 263 E Useful Addresses ................................................................................................................. 274 Index ................................................................................................................................................ 277 - v - The ARTICLE 19 Freedom of Expression Handbook ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This handbook was written by Sandra Coliver, ARTICLE 19's Law Programme Director, based upon the case summaries and decisions submitted by more than 50 contributors from 35 countries as well as her own research and the research of several legal interns. The penultimate draft was reviewed by an advisory panel of experts distinguished in the field of international and/or comparative freedom of expression jurisprudence. Ann Naughton edited the text and Susan Hay, Elizabeth Schofield and Fiona Harrison copy-edited and proofread the book. Susan York created the index and designed and formatted the handbook. ARTICLE 19 expresses its deep appreciation to the contributors who provided copies of decisions, case summaries and/or case names for suggested inclusion and/or who informed us of the absence of any positive precedents from their countries in the freedom of expression area. ARTICLE 19 decided which cases to include (especially difficult regarding jurisdictions having a large number of positive precedents), pursued follow-up information, drafted the summaries and thus accepts responsibility for the selection of cases as well as for the wording of the summaries. Where possible we double-checked case citations, facts and rulings, but were not able to do so for all cases. ARTICLE 19 will be pleased to provide further information on these cases if it is available. ARTICLE 19 is indebted to the members of the advisory panel who reviewed the penultimate draft and provided invaluable guidance. ARTICLE 19 also thanks Joanne Oyederin and law interns Birgit Friedl, Andréa Gambino, Zev Gewurtz, Kathryn Klingenstein, Peter Ohr and Susan Tamarkind, all of whom provided valuable assistance in researching and summarizing cases. ARTICLE 19 gratefully acknowledges the support of the Ford Foundation for this publication. - vi - Preface PREFACE This handbook brings together, organized by topic, summaries of decisions from courts around the world which establish precedents protective of the rights to freedom of expression, assembly, as- sociation and access to information. Also included are summaries of the most relevant international case-law (protective as well as restrictive of freedoms), and basic information about the main human rights treaties and procedures for filing complaints with intergovernmental bodies. The handbook is intended to be of use to diverse groups including lawyers, researchers and human rights campaigners. Aims of the Handbook The premise of this book is that, in whatever forum the right to freedom of expression is challenged, lawyers and campaigners seeking to defend the right should present the most powerful international and comparative law and jurisprudence available. As more countries ratify the international and regional human rights treaties, arguments that national judges should, at the least, apply international law as an aid to interpreting domestic law gain in persuasiveness. The rationale is all the stronger in the many countries whose constitutions, especially those drafted or revised since the formation of the United Nations, incorporate principles of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and/or regional human rights treaties. Countries throughout the Commonwealth have traditionally looked to decisions of the Privy Council and the British courts for persuasive reasoning. More recently, courts in common law jurisdictions have consulted the decisions of the Supreme Courts of such countries as India and the United States as well as the decisions of the European Court and Commission of Human Rights. A major aim of ARTICLE 19 in compiling this book is to make available the judgments of courts from a greater diversity of countries and thereby to facilitate the process of "cross-fertilization". Courts in civil law jurisdictions also have referred to the reasoning of courts in other jurisdictions. There is good reason for this increasing trend. First, in countries which have a court authorized to interpret and apply the constitution, freedom of expression law increasingly is made by the courts rather than the legislature. Second, and relatedly, most constitutions protect the right to freedom of expression in similar terms. Thus a judgment of a court construing a constitutional clause may provide interesting insights; this is especially true for countries which share a common legal tradition, espouse a similar commitment to freedom of expression, are in the same region, and/or are parties to the same human rights treaty. Most of the cases summarized in this book are from common law jurisdictions. This primarily reflects the traditional emphasis on precedent and, concomitantly, the greater number of appellate decisions in those jurisdictions (although constitutional interpretation akin to the role of precedent is, as noted, developing in a number of civil law countries). In addition, the fact that research for this book was conducted primarily from London limited our research of non-common law jurisdictions. In subsequent updates of the handbook, ARTICLE 19 hopes to include more cases from a wider range of legal traditions. - vii - The ARTICLE 19 Freedom of Expression Handbook Most of the case summaries collected in this book were submitted by contributors from around the world. Quotations from judicial opinions not written in English were translated by the contributor, unless otherwise specified, and thus are not official. While ARTICLE 19 edited the submissions and pursued follow-up information, the fact that some case summaries are more detailed than others and that we have few or no cases to address some important substantive areas is a reflection of the material available to us and not of any priorities or express decisions on our part. We stopped collecting cases in January 1993 (although we were able to incorporate a few received thereafter). In order to keep the handbook to a manageable length, we decided not to address certain topics closely related to freedom of expression, including the rights to freedom of religion, correspondence and trade union activity. Organization of the Handbook Part I offers an introduction to the role of international and comparative jurisprudence in national courts. Chapter 1, by Soli Sorabjee, a leading free speech advocate and former Attorney-General of India, underscores the importance of freedom of expression to a democratic society and the impact of international and comparative law in developing positive case-law in India. Chapter 2 describes the treaties and other international instruments that provide significant international protection of the rights to freedom of expression, assembly, association and access to information. Chapter 3 addresses the impact of international and comparative law on the reasoning of national courts. It includes a brief description of the theories pursuant to which national courts apply international law, surveys the status of international treaty law in the domestic law of several countries, and offers examples of applications by national courts of international and comparative freedom of expression law. Part II, comprising the bulk of the book, summarizes judgments of national courts that are protective of freedom of expression and the most pertinent decisions of international courts and other tribunals. The cases are organized by topic and are divided into chapters on positive protections of freedom of expression (Chapter 4); standards for assessing the legitimacy of restrictions (Chapter 5); restrictions based on threats to national security or public order (Chapter 6); content-related restrictions (Chapter 7); injunctions and other forms of prior restraint (Chapter 8); and time, place, manner and other non-content related restrictions (Chapter 9). Part III offers an introduction to the international procedures by which people who have suffered freedom of expression violations may seek international scrutiny and redress. This part provides sufficient information to enable the reader to evaluate whether pursuit of an international remedy would be worthwhile in a particular case and, if so, how to comply with the minimal prerequisites for pursuing such an international remedy. Frances D'Souza, Executive Director Sandra Coliver, Law Programme Director June 1993 - viii - The ARTICLE 19 Freedom of Expression Handbook MEMBERS OF THE ADVISORY PANEL Eric Barendt: Goodman Professor of Media Law, University College London. Kevin Boyle: Professor of Law and Director, Human Rights Centre, University of Essex; former Director of ARTICLE 19. Norman Dorsen: Stokes Professor of Law, New York University School of Law; President, American Civil Liberties Union (1976-1991). Frances D'Souza: Executive Director of ARTICLE 19; Chairperson, International Rushdie Defence Committee; Founding Director of the Relief and Development Institute (1977-84) and Editor International Journal of Disaster Studies and Practice (1978-83). Roger Errera: Member, Conseil d'Etat, Paris; former member, UN Human Rights Committee; member of the International Advisory Council of Interights, London; member, Board of Governors of the Ecole nationale de la magistrature. Gitobu Imanyara: Lawyer; Editor, Nairobi Law Monthly and Nairobi Weekly; member, International Board of ARTICLE 19. Anthony Lester: Queen's Counsel; President, Interights; Honorary Professor of Public Law, University College London. Emilio Mignone: Argentinian human rights lawyer and writer; member, International Advisory Council of ARTICLE 19. Manfred Nowak: Professor of Law and Director of the Ludwig Boltzmann Institute of Human Rights, Austrian Federal Academy of Public Administration, Vienna. Soli Sorabjee: Advocate of the Supreme Court of India; former Attorney-General of India, Vice- Chairman, International Board of ARTICLE 19. Christian Tomuschat: Professor of International Law and Director, Institute of Public Law, University of Bonn; member, International Law Commission (UN); member, International Advisory Council of Interights; former member, UN Human Rights Committee. Danilo Türk: Permanent Representative of Slovenia to the United Nations; Professor of International Law, University of Ljubljana; former member of UN Sub-Commission on Prevention of Discrimination and Protection of Minorities (1985-1991) and one of its two Rapporteurs on Freedom of Expression. - xi -