UNCLASSIFIED FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY BACKGROUND BRIEF TThhee AArraabb WWoorrlldd:: AAnn IInnttrroodduuccttiioonn TToo CCuullttuurraall AApppprreecciiaattiioonn January 2007 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY UNCLASSIFIED The Arab World: An Introduction To Cultural Appreciation Preface This assessment of Arab culture is intended as a guide to MoD and other government personnel who may visit Arab countries. The report concentrates on historical,social and cultural themes. The precise geographical area which actually constitutes the Arab world is a matter of dispute. This study covers Algeria,Bahrain,Egypt,Iraq,Jordan,Kuwait, Lebanon,Libya,Mauritania,Morocco,Oman,Palestinian territories,Qatar,Saudi Arabia,Sudan,Syria,Tunisia,UAE and Yemen. Sometimes Djbouti,Somalia and the Comoros Islands are also defined as Arab countries,but they are not considered here. The study places emphasis on the Arab countries of the Middle East, particularly the Gulf. The study is not intended to be exhaustive;rather,themes have been selected as the focus of the study on the basis that they are common to most Arab countries and their populations. It should be remembered,however,that the Arab world is a vast area encompassing many diverse cultural phenomena,and readers are advised to consult reference books on individual countries of interest to supplement the more generic information contained here. * Readers who wish to enquire about this paper should telephone:+XX XXXX (S.40) UNCLASSIFIED FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY CONTENTS page Section One - Arab History:a Brief Overview 2 Section Two - Arab Cultural Values:a Guide to Interaction 6 Section Three - The Arab Family 15 Section Four - Tribes and the Kinship System 19 Section Five - Gender Relations and the Position of Women 23 Section Six - The Importance of Arabic 26 Section Seven - Religious Life 31 Section Eight - Arab Attitudes to the West 42 Annex One - Sunni and Shi'a Doctrine 46 Annex Two - Useful Words and Phrases 49 Annex Three - Key Dates 2007 - 2008 51 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY 1 UNCLASSIFIED UNCLASSIFIED FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY The Arab World: An Introduction To Cultural Appreciation SECTION ONE ARAB HISTORY:A BRIEF OVERVIEW “It was not for Paradise thou did’st the nomad life forsake. Rather it was thy yearning after bread and dates. ”-The Arab View of History (from 7th century Arab poem commenting on the Islamic conquests). Before Muhammad,the Arabs were a peripheral people inhabiting the Arabian peninsula and its fringes,many of whom were nomadic tribesmen. All this changed in the early 7th century CE,when they burst out of the desert to create the largest land empire in history. In the 14th century,Ibn Khaldun,a famous Muslim historian,wrote that political history consisted of a cycle of conquests by nomadic tribesmen,who took over sedentary states and governed them until they were in turn defeated by other nomads. This model of the Middle East - true or not - has had enormous impact on Arab perceptions. But the familiar stereotype of the Bedouin elite (camels,tents, blood-feuds etc,typified by the Gulf monarchies and frequently portrayed in film and literature) is only a small part of Arab history. The majority of Arabs are the inheritors of the world’s oldest urban civilisations;the term “The Street”,used throughout the Middle East to describe popular opinion, reflects this inheritance. In spite of their commanders’ attempts to segregate them,the Arab armies soon assimilated with their new subjects,particularly through intermarriage. The children of such unions were brought up as Arabs,and since each Arab could have up to four wives (and numerous concubines),the population was rapidly Arabised. The only partial exceptions were in North Africa,Central Asia and Spain. In North Africa the indigenous Berbers,who converted half- heartedly to Islam,successfully resisted Arabisation for several centuries,but were gradually worn down. Berber nationalism survives in the Maghreb,but is expressed through language and culture rather than politics. The inhabitants of Central Asia,mostly Turkic,became enthusiastic Muslims,but successfully resisted Arabisation. The Arabs and Berbers who conquered Spain in the 8th century CE were driven out by the indigenous inhabitants 2 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY UNCLASSIFIED UNCLASSIFIED FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY The Arab World: An Introduction To Cultural Appreciation over the next thousand years;the last vestiges of Islam were purged in the late 16th century CE. The loss of Spain is still a source of regret for the Arabs (one reason why Al-Qaida shows a close interest);al-Andalus (Andalusia) remains a popular place name in Arab cities. The fruits of conquest soon diluted religious zeal and Arab material and political culture assimilated with that of the regions they conquered. The imperial elite lived in cities,grew rich on trade,industry and agriculture,and was supported by an extensive bureaucracy. Art and science were encouraged,and the preservation of Greco-Roman classical learning during Europe’s so-called “Dark Ages” is still a source of Arab pride. The empire (or caliphate,after its leader,the caliph) was also fairly tolerant,at least of Jews and Christians,many of whom achieved senior rank in the bureaucracy. Reconciling the doctrine of Islam - first set down in the context of a nomadic society - with a sophisticated urban civilisation has been a cause of tension among the Arabs ever since. The Arab empire declined from the eighth century to the sixteenth century CE;Islamic fundamentalists preferring to date the end of the “Golden Age” much earlier than secular,nationalist Arabs. The Turks were the primary external cause,starting from their employment as mercenaries by the Abbasid caliphate in the 9th century CE. By the 11th century the Near East was dominated by Turkic military dynasties who had usurped power from their former masters and who,although Arabised in culture,retained their ethnic identity. In the 13th century CE the region was faced by a new threat from the Mongols,who destroyed the caliphate. Egypt successfully led the resistance against the Mongols (and the Crusades,which began in 1096CE), securing its leadership of the Arab world under the Mamluk dynasty. But the central Asians finally won out in the 16th century CE,when the Ottoman Turks defeated the Mamluks and occupied all of North Africa, confirming the demise of Arab regional hegemony. The Arab Nation never recovered from Ottoman conquest. The latter’s demise in 1922,after its defeat by the Allies in 1918,freed the Arabs from FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY 3 UNCLASSIFIED UNCLASSIFIED FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY The Arab World: An Introduction To Cultural Appreciation Turkish rule. Although the League of Nations Mandates by which the Allies ruled the Middle East imposed a much lighter burden than had the Ottomans,Arabs are generally much more critical of this period of “imperialism” than they are of the Turks. But Ottoman rule had been generally inefficient in any case,and N Africa,which had been under notional Turkish suzereinty,had already been conquered by the French and British. The critical factors in defining Arab attitudes were religion (the Turks had at least been Muslims),the establishment of a Jewish homeland in Palestine,the historical memory of the Crusades and - to some extent - the retrenchment of tribal monarchy by the British. Although the Crusades had never been a significant threat to the region (compared to the Turks or the Mongols),they provided a historical focus for “anti-colonialism”. At the same time,Arab nationalism was infected by some of the political ideals which had developed in Europe over the previous two hundred years, particularly secularism and socialism. The monarchies in Egypt and Iraq, through which the British had ruled (or,latterly,“exercised influence”) were overthrown and replaced by military elites,and the crisis in Arab nationalism was exacerbated by the creation of Israel in 1947,and its subsequent defeat of all the neighbouring Arab armies in 1948 (Al-Naqba - “the Catastrophe”). Egypt’s Nasser personified the new secular nationalism,but catastrophic defeat in the 1967 war with Israel,which he instigated,began the discrediting of secularism,culminating in the rise of Islamism. The 1973 Yom Kippur/Ramadan War was the last gasp of secular Arab nationalism as a military force,and restored some degree of honour,particularly among the Egyptians (enabling the latter’s peace treaty with Israel). But subsequent wars against the Israelis,Iranians,and lately the Americans and British, confirmed its demise. Arab history had returned to the nadir of Ibn Khaldun’s cycle;moribund indigenous elites ruling impoverished - but restless - populations. The once wealthy,sophisticated and powerful empire had withered,and the last 50 years of Arab history have been an attempt to identify and recover those attributes which had once made the Nation great - and the leadership to make it happen. It is hardly surprising that the underlying promise of Islamic extremism - to restore the spiritual foundation 4 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY UNCLASSIFIED UNCLASSIFIED FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY The Arab World: An Introduction To Cultural Appreciation of greatness - has such invidious appeal. The success of Lebanese resistance to the 1982 Israeli invasion (in which religion played an essential role) offered hope for Arab pride,and subsequently developed into the standard model of resistance. Hezbollah's conflict with Israel in 2006 has similarly resonated around the Arab World. But the “yearning for bread and dates” remains equally powerful,albeit frustratingly less attainable than Paradise. FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY 5 UNCLASSIFIED UNCLASSIFIED FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY The Arab World: An Introduction To Cultural Appreciation SECTION TWO ARAB CULTURAL VALUES: A GUIDE TO INTERACTION (S.40) Notions of Honour and Shame Honour (sharaf or ‘ird) and shame (hashama) are two of the most fundamental principles governing social organisation and interaction in Arab (and indeed all Muslim) societies. They are invoked in almost every social context,from a casual interaction between friends on a street corner to blood feuds between families. Numerous aspects of social behaviour can be traced to a universal need to uphold the honour of the individual and his or her family,the preservation of which is considered a basic duty of all. Honour is the collective property of a family,and,once lost,is difficult to regain. Honour determines social status,forms the basis of social etiquette,underpins relations between families,lineages and tribes,and can often mean the difference between life or death. The concept is at once a central element in the value system of the society,a method of regulating social relations,an organising principle for social behaviour,and a means of social control. The socio-psychological need to avoid a loss of face or be subject to shame, and a consequent diminution in social status in the eyes of society,to a large extent underpins social behaviour and interaction between Arabs,at least in public. It also has ramifications for the marriage possibilities of an individual and their siblings. 6 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY UNCLASSIFIED UNCLASSIFIED FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY The Arab World: An Introduction To Cultural Appreciation Honour among Arabs is often described as being “more important than facts”. “Face” refers to the outward appearance of honour,and Arabs describe the face as being “blackened” when honour is undermined. (Conversely,the face is said to have been “whitened” when honour is restored). A loss of face may occur when someone refuses someone else’s hospitality,ignores their authority,behaves disrespectfully towards them, places themselves in a position of possible sexual compromise or in some other way transgresses a behavioural code. In order to regain honour,an individual or a family may have to resort to drastic restorative measures, including blood-letting in some cases. There are a number of different aspects of the code of honour in Arabic societies,some of which are listed below. Virility. A man is said to be honourable if he can prove his virility by having many children,especially sons. Work. Certain jobs,such as those associated with sedentary agriculture or artisanship,are regarded as falling outside the traditional Arab value system by sections of Arab societies,and therefore dishonourable. Likewise,many tasks are believed to undermine a man’s honour because they are viewed as being the preserve of women. Examples are the preparation of food,the performing of domestic duties or responsibilities associated with child-care. Blood-purity. Honour is derived in part from the purity of one’s Arab blood-line,on both the paternal and maternal sides,something which obviously applies to kin groups and tribes as well. Certain Arab tribes are regarded as being more “authentically Arab” than others,through their claimed descendence from a heroic Arabic figure of the past,for example, and/or because they are of Bedouin origin. Bravery. A man’s honour depends on his ability to prove his bravery and to protect his family from its enemies. Blood-feuding (al-tar) is strongly related to this aspect of honour,since a man has a duty to take revenge on anyone who has tarnished his own or his family’s honour in some way. FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY 7 UNCLASSIFIED UNCLASSIFIED FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY The Arab World: An Introduction To Cultural Appreciation Hospitality. The basic values of hospitality and generosity must be upheld in order to preserve one’s honour,which becomes seriously compromised by any displays of inhospitality. Likewise,the refusal of hospitality without good reason will result in a loss of face for the host,since,by so doing,the guest is implying that their host is not good enough for them. Education. Arab cultures place great value on education and literacy,and both are intimately connected with the status of an individual and his or her family. It is considered demeaning,even shameful,to engage in occupations for which one is considered to be overqualified. Authority. The honour of a family patriarch,lineage head or tribal shaykh depends in large part on the extent to which he is able to impose his will on members of the group. This,in turn,is a product of the level of respect he engenders among them. It is notable that one of the terms used for honour,‘asabiyya,also means ‘family’ or ‘kinship spirit/loyalty’. Sexual honour (‘ird). The honour of a family is inextricably bound up with the sexual honour of its female members. Any violation of the strict prohibitions surrounding female sexual conduct will automatically have a severely detrimental impact upon the honour of the family. Homosexuality is officially illegal in most Arab countries. Body Language and Social Etiquette Public manners are extremely important in the Arab world. Social etiquette and body language therefore govern the interaction between people and their relationships to a greater degree than is the case in the west. Gesturing. Body language represents a highly developed form of communication in Arab cultures,and a multitude of gestures are commonly used in everyday interaction. Men tend to use gestures more than women, and the following list applies largely to men. (It should be noted that not all of these apply universally to all countries:there are significant local variations and the populations of some countries and regions use additional gestures as well.) 8 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY UNCLASSIFIED