Guide To The Arab-Israeli Conflict The Palestine War 1948 Efraim Karsh Contents Introduction Chronology Background to war The burden of history Warring sides Strengths and weaknesses of Arabs and Jews Outbreak ‘The Arabs of Palestine will never submit to partition’ The fighting From inter-communal strife to inter-state war Portrait of a soldier Trapped on the battlefield The world around war The great game Portrait of a civilian Leaving Jerusalem How the war ended From ceasefire to armistice Conclusion and consequences Perpetuating the Arab–Israeli conflict Further reading Introduction On 29 November 1947, the United Nations General Assembly passed a resolution calling for the partition of Palestine into two independent states – one Jewish, the other Arab – linked in an economic union. The City of Jerusalem was to be placed under an international régime, with its residents given the right to citizenship in either the Jewish or the Arab states. Thirty-three UN members supported the resolution, 13 voted against and 10 abstained, including Great Britain, which had ruled Palestine since the early 1920s under a League of Nations Mandate. For Jews all over the world this was the fulfilment of a millenarian yearning for national rebirth in the ancestral homeland. For Arabs it was an unmitigated disaster, an act of betrayal by the international community that surrendered an integral part of the Arab world to foreign invaders. In Tel-Aviv, crowds were dancing in the streets. In the Arab capitals there were violent demonstrations. ‘We are solidly and permanently determined to fight to the last man against the existence in our country of any Jewish state, no matter how small it is,’ Jamal al- Husseini, Vice-President of the Arab Higher Committee (AHC), the effective government of the Palestinian Arabs, told the General Assembly as it was about to cast its vote. ‘If such a state is to be established, it can only be established over our dead bodies.’ And an AHC circular was even more outspoken. ‘The Arabs have taken into their own hands the final solution of the Jewish problem,’ it read. ‘The problem will be solved only in blood and fire. The Jews will soon be driven out.’ Thus began the Palestine War, probably the most important Middle-Eastern armed confrontation since the destruction of the Ottoman Empire and the creation of a new regional order on its ruins in the wake of the First World War. It was to be divided into two distinct phases. The first began on 30 November 1947, the day after the adoption of the Partition Resolution, and ended on 14 May 1948 with the termination of the British Mandate. It was essentially a civil war, conducted under the watchful eye and occasional intervention of the British Mandatory authorities, in which the Palestinian Arab community, assisted by a sizeable pan-Arab irregular force, sought to prevent its Jewish counterpart from laying the foundation of statehood in line with the UN resolution. The second laying the foundation of statehood in line with the UN resolution. The second phase started on the night of 14–15 May 1948, a few hours after the proclamation of the State of Israel, and involved a concerted attack by the armed forces of Egypt, Syria, Iraq, Transjordan, Lebanon, as well as a Saudi contingent, on the nascent Jewish state. It ended on 20 July 1949 with the signing of the last of the armistice agreements between Israel and its Arab neighbours. By the time the fighting was over, Israel, albeit at the exorbitant human cost of 1 per cent of its population, had survived the Arab attempt to destroy it at birth and had asserted its control over wider territories than those assigned to it by the UN Partition Resolution. The Palestinian Arab community was profoundly shattered, with about half of its population becoming refugees in other parts of Palestine and the neighbouring Arab states. The political implications of what would come to be known in Arab political discourse as al- Nakba, ‘the catastrophe,’ would reverberate throughout the Middle East for decades. Already before the end of hostilities the president of Syria was overthrown by a military coup, while the king of Egypt followed suit in the summer of 1952. Within two years of the end of the Palestine War, King Abdallah of Jordan, the foremost Arab combatant during the conflict, was assassinated, as were the prime ministers of Egypt and Lebanon. For decades inter-Arab politics would be dominated by the ‘problem of Palestine’ as the Arab states and the Palestinians sought to undo the consequences of the Palestine War and bring about Israel’s demise by military, political and economic means. ‘Palestine and the self-respect of the Arabs must be recovered,’ the prominent Palestinian leader Musa Alami wrote in 1949. ‘Without Palestine there is no life for them.’ Chronology 1917 2 November British Government issues the ‘Balfour Declaration’ supporting ‘the establishment in Palestine of a national home for the Jewish people’ 1920 March Britain awarded the Mandate for Palestine at the San Remo conference April Arab riots in Jerusalem. Five Jews killed and 211 wounded 1921 March British Government excludes Transjordan from the prospective Jewish national home (though not from the Palestine Mandate) April Hajj Amin al-Husseini appointed Mufti of Jerusalem May Arab riots in Palestine. Ninety Jews killed and hundreds wounded 1922 June A British White Paper depreciates the nature of the prospective national Jewish home; limits Jewish immigration to the ‘economic absorption capacity of the country’ 1929 August Arab rioters kill 133 Jews and wound hundreds more 1930 October A White Paper recommends harsh restrictions on Jewish immigration and purchase of land 1936 April A 10-member Arab Higher Committee established as the effective leadership of the Palestinian Arabs; a general Arab uprising begins October Uprising temporarily suspended at the request of Arab leaders 1937 July A Royal Commission of Inquiry, headed by Lord Peel, recommends the termination of the Mandate and the partition of Palestine into two states: an Arab state, united with Transjordan, in some 85 per cent of this territory, and a Jewish state in the rest. Jerusalem, Bethlehem, and a corridor leading them to the Mediterranean Sea to remain a British Mandatory zone 1938 November Woodhead Royal Commission: recommends the shelving of the Peel Partition Plan 1939 May A White Paper restricts Jewish immigration to no more than 15,000 per year during the next five-year period; after that it would occur only with Arab consent. Purchase of land by Jews is prohibited in some areas, restricted in others 1942 May A Zionist conference at the Biltmore Hotel, New York, demands that ‘Palestine be established as a Jewish Commonwealth integrated in the structure of the new democratic world’ 1946 1 May An Anglo-American Commission of Inquiry recommends the opening of Palestine to 100,000 Jewish refugees. Recommendation rejected by British Foreign Secretary Ernest Bevin June A pan-Arab summit in Bludan (Syria) adopts a series of measures to prevent the creation of a Jewish state 1947 March Britain refers the Palestine problem to the UN 31 August UN Special Committee on Palestine (UNSCOP) recommends the earliest possible termination of the British Mandate. A majority report suggests the partition of Palestine into an Arab state, a Jewish state, and an internationalised city of Jerusalem – all linked in an economic union. A minority report recommends an independent federal state 16–19 September Pan-Arab summit in Sofar (Lebanon). Urges the Arab states to ‘open their doors to Palestinian children, women, and the elderly and fend for them, should the developments in Palestine so require’ 29 November UN General Assembly endorses UNSCOP’s majority recommendation on the partition of Palestine 30 November Arab violence begins. Eight Jews killed, others wounded 1 December AHC proclaims a three-day nationwide strike 2 December Arab mob destroys the new Jewish commercial centre in Jerusalem 4 December Arabs attack on Efal: the first large-scale attempt to storm a Jewish neighbourhood. Failed 8 December Arab assault on Hatikva quarter in south Tel-Aviv. Failed with heavy casualties 8–17 December Arab League summit in Cairo. Decides to contribute one million Egyptian pounds and 10,000 rifles to the Palestine war effort 12 December Jewish car bomb near the Old City in Jerusalem. Twenty Arabs killed and five wounded 14 December Arab Legion attacks a Jewish supply convoy to Ben-Shemen, killing 12 people 18 December Eight Arabs killed in a Jewish retaliatory action against the Galilean village of Khasas 30 December Irgun bomb kills six Arab workers near the Haifa oil refinery. Arab workers at the plant kill 39 Jewish workers 1948 4 January Lehi blows up the headquarters of the Jaffa National Committee 10 January Arab Liberation Army (ALA) attack on Kfar-Szold. Failed 14 January Large-scale Arab attack on Etzion Bloc. Failed with heavy casualties 15–16 January A platoon of 35 Jewish fighters sent to reinforce Etzion Bloc wiped out 20 January ALA attack on Yechiam. Failed 1–15 February Jewish retaliatory strikes in Haifa, Jerusalem and Sasa 16 February ALA offensive against Tirat-Zvi. Failed with heavy casualties 22 February Arab car bomb explodes in Jewish Jerusalem. Fifty people killed, hundreds wounded 2–4 March Arab attacks on Magdiel and Ramot-Naftali. Failed 11 March Arab car bomb destroys Jewish national headquarters in Jerusalem 17 March Large Arab arms convoy destroyed in a battle near Haifa 19 March US proposes suspension of Partition Plan and a temporary international trusteeship for Palestine 27 March Jewish convoy from Nahariya to Yechiam ambushed. Forty-two fighters killed 27–28 March A large Jewish convoy returning from Etzion Bloc to Jerusalem ambushed near Nabi Daniel. Jewish fighters evacuated by British army. Weapons and vehicles lost to Arabs 31 March Jewish convoy to Jerusalem ambushed. Seventeen people killed 6–15 April Operation Nachshon: Jewish offensive to open the road to Jerusalem 4–12 April ALA offensive against Mishmar-Haemek. Failed with heavy losses 8 April The prominent Palestinian military commander Abd al-Qader al-Husseini killed 9 April Irgun and Lehi forces occupy Deir Yasin. Some 100 people killed 10 April Muslim Brothers attack Kfar-Darom. Failed 13 April Arabs ambush Jewish medical convoy in Jerusalem. Some 80 nurses and doctors killed 13–16 April Druze offensive against Ramat-Yohanan. Failed 15–21 April Operation Harel: three large supply convoys break through to Jewish Jerusalem 18 April Tiberias falls to the Hagana. Arab population evacuated at their request 21–22 April Haifa captured by the Hagana. Arab leaders refuse to surrender and order the evacuation of the city’s Arab population 22–30 April Operation Jebusite: Jewish offensive to secure outlying Jerusalem neighbourhoods. Failed to occupy Nabi Samuel; seized Sheikh Jarrah but relinquished control at British demand; captured Qatamon 1–12 May Arab attacks on Galilee kibbutzim (Dan, Dafna, Kfar-Szold, Ramot-Naftali, Maayan- Baruch). Failed. Operation Yiftach: Hagana captures Arab villages and towns in eastern Galilee in anticipation of the Arab invasion 4–15 May Operation Barak: capture of Arab villages in the southern sector, in preparation for Arab invasion 8–18 May Operation Maccabee: Jewish offensive to clear the road to Jerusalem. Partial success 11 May Jewish forces capture Safed 11–12 May Muslim Brothers attack on Kfar-Darom. Failed 12 May Jewish forces occupy Beisan 13 May Jaffa surrenders to the Hagana. Arab Legion occupies the Etzion Bloc. Dozens of civilians and fighters killed after surrendering 14 May Termination of the British Mandate over Palestine. Proclamation of the State of Israel 15 May Armies of Egypt, Syria, Transjordan, Lebanon, and Iraq invade Israel. Egyptian air force bombs Tel-Aviv. Egyptian attacks on Kfar-Darom and Nirim. Failed 15–22 May Iraqi attacks on Gesher and the castle of Belvoir. Failed 17 May Egyptian forces enter Beersheba. Move northwards to the outskirts of Jerusalem 16–19 May Israeli raids on military targets in Syria and Lebanon 17–18 May Israeli forces capture Acre 18 May Syrian forces occupy Zemakh, Masada and Shaar-Hagolan 20 May Large-scale Syrian assault on Deganiya. Failed with heavy casualties. UN appoints Count Folke Bernadotte of Sweden as Mediator for Palestine 19–24 May Egyptian attack on Yad-Mordechai. Settlement captured after defenders’ withdrawal 21–25 May Egyptian–Transjordanian attack on Ramat-Rahel. Failed 21–27 May Egyptian attack on Negba. Failed 22 May Israeli forces complete occupation of western Galilee 24 May Israeli forces recapture Shaar-Hagolan and Masada 25 May An Iraqi attack in the direction of Netanya. Failed. Operation Ben-Nun A: Israeli attack on the Latrun fortress. Failed with heavy casualties 28 May The Israel Defence Forces (IDF) established. Jewish Quarter in the Old City of Jerusalem falls to Arab Legion 30 May Operation Ben-Nun B: Second Israeli attack on Latrun. Failed 2 June Egyptian attack on Negba. Failed 3–4 June Israeli forces occupy Jenin. Dislodged by Iraqis 6 June Combined Syrian–Lebanese–ALA force captures Malkiya 6 June First convoy to Jerusalem through Burma Road 6–7 June Egyptian forces occupy Nitzanim, some 30 kilometres south of Tel-Aviv 7–8 June Operation Yitzhak: Israeli attack on Isdud. Failed 9 June Iraqi army occupies the headwaters of the Yarkon River at Ras el-Ein 10 June Syrians occupy Mishmar-Hayarden. Fail to capture Ein-Gev and Ramot-Naftali 9–10 June Operation Yoram: Third Israeli attack on Latrun. Failed 10–11 June Israeli forces capture a number of villages in southern sector but fail to occupy the strategic police fort of Iraq Sueidan