EHISTORY & CULTURE H T of NATIVE AMERICANS The Apache EHISTORY & CULTURE H T of NATIVE AMERICANS The Apache The Blackfeet The Cherokee The Cheyenne The Choctaw The Comanche The Hopi The Iroquois The Lakota Sioux The Mohawk The Navajo The Nez Perce The Seminole The Zuni HISTORY & CULTURE E H T NATIVE AMERICANS of The Apache JOSEPH C. JASTRZEMBSKI Series Editor PAUL C. ROSIER The Apache Copyright ©2011 by Infobase Learning All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage or retrieval systems, without permission in writing from the publisher. For information contact: Chelsea House An imprint of Infobase Learning 132 West 31st Street New York NY 10001 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Jastrzembski, Joseph C. The Apache / Joseph C. Jastrzembski. p. cm. — (The history and culture of Native Americans) Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-1-60413-793-4 (hardcover) ISBN 978-1-4381-3784-1 (e-book) 1. Apache Indians—History—Juvenile literature. 2. Apache Indians—Social life and customs—Juvenile literature. I. Title. II. Series. E99.A6J368 2011 979.004’9725—dc22 2010052883 Chelsea House books are available at special discounts when purchased in bulk quantities for businesses, associations, institutions, or sales promotions. Please call our Special Sales Department in New York at (212) 967-8800 or (800) 322-8755. You can find Chelsea House on the World Wide Web at http://www.infobaselearning.com Text design by Lina Farinella Cover design by Alicia Post Composition by Julie Adams Cover printed by Yurchak Printing, Landisville, Pa. Book printed and bound by Yurchak Printing, Landisville, Pa. Date printed: June 2011 Printed in the United States of America 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 This book is printed on acid-free paper. All links and Web addresses were checked and verified to be correct at the time of publication. Because of the dynamic nature of the Web, some addresses and links may have changed since publication and may no longer be valid. Contents Foreword by Paul C. Rosier 6 1 In the Beginning 14 2 Changes from the South 25 3 Violence over the Land 36 4 Resistance 49 5 Cultural Persistence and Adaptation 63 6 New Ways Open 75 7 Apache Rebirth 86 8 Self-government and Sovereignty in Apache Country Since 1990 97 Chronology and Timeline 108 Glossary 114 Bibliography 116 Further Resources 120 Picture Credits 122 Index 123 About the Contributors 129 Foreword by Paul C. Rosier Native American words, phrases, and tribal names are embedded in the very geography of the United States—in the names of creeks, rivers, lakes, cities, and states, including Alabama, Connecticut, Iowa, Kansas, Illinois, Missouri, Oklahoma, and many others. Yet Native Americans remain the most misunderstood ethnic group in the United States. Th is is a result of limited coverage of Native American history in middle schools, high schools, and colleges; poor coverage of contemporary Native American issues in the news media; and stereotypes created by Hollywood movies, sport- ing events, and TV shows. Two newspaper articles about American Indians caught my eye in recent months. Paired together, they provide us with a good introduction to the experiences of American Indians today: fi rst, how they are stereotyped and turned into commodities; and second, how they see themselves being a part of the United States and of the wider world. (Note: I use the terms Native Americans and American Indians interchangeably; both terms are considered appropriate.) In the fi rst article, “Humorous Souvenirs to Some, Off ensive Stereotypes to Others,” written by Carol Berry in Indian Country Today, I read that tourist shops in Colorado were selling “souvenir” T-shirts portraying American Indians as drunks. “My Indian name is Runs with Beer,” read one T-shirt off ered in Denver. According to the article, the T-shirts are “the kind of stereotype-reinforcing products also seen in nearby Boulder, Estes Park, and likely other Colorado communities, whether as part of the tourism trade or as everyday merchandise.” No other ethnic group in the United States is stereotyped in such a public fashion. In addition, Native 6 Foreword 7 people are used to sell a range of consumer goods, including the Jeep Cherokee, Red Man chewing tobacco, Land O’Lakes butter, and other items that either objectify or insult them, such as cigar store Indians. As importantly, non-Indians learn about American Indian history and culture through sports teams such as the At- lanta Braves, Cleveland Indians, Florida State Seminoles, or Wash- ington Redskins, whose name many American Indians consider a racist insult; dictionaries defi ne redskin as a “disparaging” or “of- fensive” term for American Indians. When fans in Atlanta do their “tomahawk chant” at Braves baseball games, they perform two in- appropriate and related acts: One, they perpetuate a stereotype of American Indians as violent; and two, they tell a historical narrative that covers up the violent ways that Georgians treated the Chero- kee during the Removal period of the 1830s. Th e second article, written by Melissa Pinion-Whitt of the San Bernardino Sun addressed an important but unknown dimension of Native American societies that runs counter to the irresponsible and violent image created by products and sporting events. Th e article, “San Manuels Donate $1.7 M for Aid to Haiti,” described a Native American community that had sent aid to Haiti aft er it was devastated in January 2010 by an earthquake that killed more than 200,000 people, injured hundreds of thousands more, and de- stroyed the Haitian capital. Th e San Manuel Band of Mission Indi- ans in California donated $1.7 million to help relief eff orts in Haiti; San Manuel children held fund-raisers to collect additional dona- tions. For the San Manuel Indians it was nothing new; in 2007 they had donated $1 million to help Sudanese refugees in Darfur. San Manuel also contributed $700,000 to relief eff orts following Hur- ricane Katrina and Hurricane Rita, and donated $1 million in 2007 for wildfi re recovery in Southern California. Such generosity is consistent with many American Indian na- tions’ cultural practices, such as the “give-away,” in which wealthy tribal members give to the needy, and the “potlatch,” a winter gift - giving ceremony and feast tradition shared by tribes in the Pacifi c 8 THE APACHE Northwest. And it is consistent with historical accounts of Ameri- can Indians’ generosity. For example, in 1847 Cherokee and Choc- taw, who had recently survived their forced march on a “Trail of Tears” from their homelands in the American South to present-day Oklahoma, sent aid to Irish families aft er reading of the potato famine, which created a similar forced migration of Irish. A Cher- okee newspaper editorial, quoted in Christine Kinealy’s Th e Great Irish Famine: Impact, Ideology, and Rebellion, explained that the Cherokee “will be richly repaid by the consciousness of having done a good act, by the moral eff ect it will produce abroad.” Dur- ing and aft er World War II, nine Pueblo communities in New Mex- ico off ered to donate food to the hungry in Europe, aft er Pueblo army veterans told stories of suff ering they had witnessed while serving in the United States armed forces overseas. Considering themselves a part of the wider world, Native people have reached beyond their borders, despite their own material poverty, to help create a peaceful world community. American Indian nations have demonstrated such generosity within the United States, especially in recent years. Aft er the terror- ist attacks of September 11, 2001, the Lakota Sioux in South Da- kota off ered police offi cers and emergency medical personnel to New York City to help with relief eff orts; Indian nations across the country sent millions of dollars to help the victims of the attacks. As an editorial in the Native American Times newspaper explained on September 12, 2001, “American Indians love this country like no other. . . . Today, we are all New Yorkers.” Indeed, Native Americans have sacrifi ced their lives in defend- ing the United States from its enemies in order to maintain their right to be both American and Indian. As the volumes in this series tell us, Native Americans patriotically served as soldiers (including as “code talkers”) during World War I and World War II, as well as during the Korean War, the Vietnam War, and, aft er 9/11, the wars in Afghanistan and Iraq. Native soldiers, men and women, do so today by the tens of thousands because they believe in America, an Foreword 9 America that celebrates diff erent cultures and peoples. Sgt. Leonard Gouge, a Muscogee Creek, explained it best in an article in Chero- kee News Path in discussing his post-9/11 army service. He said he was willing to serve his country abroad because “by supporting the American way of life, I am preserving the Indian way of life.” Th is new Chelsea House series has two main goals. Th e fi rst is to document the rich diversity of American Indian societies and the ways their cultural practices and traditions have evolved over time. Th e second goal is to provide the reader with coverage of the com- plex relationships that have developed between non-Indians and Indians over the past several hundred years. Th is history helps to explain why American Indians consider themselves both American and Indian and why they see preserving this identity as a strength of the American way of life, as evidence to the rest of the world that America is a champion of cultural diversity and religious freedom. By exploring Native Americans’ cultural diversity and their contri- butions to the making of the United States, these volumes confront the stereotypes that paint all American Indians as the same and por- tray them as violent; as “drunks,” as those Colorado T-shirts do; or as rich casino owners, as many news accounts do. ✳ ✳ ✳ Each of the 14 volumes in this series is written by a scholar who shares my conviction that young adult readers are both fascinated by Native American history and culture and have not been pro- vided with suffi cient material to properly understand the diverse nature of this complex history and culture. Th e authors them- selves represent a varied group that includes university teachers and professional writers, men and women, and Native and non- Native. To tell these fascinating stories, this talented group of scholars has examined an incredible variety of sources, both the primary sources that historical actors have created and the sec- ondary sources that historians and anthropologists have written to make sense of the past.