SSttuuddiiaa AAnnttiiqquuaa Volume 7 Number 2 Article 5 December 2009 TThhee AAnnooiinnttiinngg ooff AAaarroonn:: TThhee PPrroocceessss bbyy WWhhiicchh HHee BBeeccaammee HHoolliieerr tthhaann HHiiss SSoonnss Michael Biggerstaff Follow this and additional works at: https://scholarsarchive.byu.edu/studiaantiqua Part of the Biblical Studies Commons BBYYUU SScchhoollaarrssAArrcchhiivvee CCiittaattiioonn Biggerstaff, Michael. "The Anointing of Aaron: The Process by Which He Became Holier than His Sons." Studia Antiqua 7, no. 2 (2009). https://scholarsarchive.byu.edu/studiaantiqua/vol7/iss2/5 This Article is brought to you for free and open access by the Journals at BYU ScholarsArchive. It has been accepted for inclusion in Studia Antiqua by an authorized editor of BYU ScholarsArchive. For more information, please contact [email protected], [email protected]. THE ANOINTING OF AARON: THE PROCESS BY WHICH HE BECAME HOLIER THAN HIS SONS MICHAEL BIGGERSTAFF “Th en take the anointing oil, and pour it upon his head, and anoint him.” (Exod 29:7)1 “And he [Moses] poured some of the anointing oil upon Aaron’s head, and anointed him in order to make him holy.” (Lev 8:12) In the ancient Near East, priests were the religious functionaries, the ones who communed with the gods. Th ey were part of a highly specialized caste, one not open to just anybody. Although Israel was unique and distinguished from the other nations (see Exod 19:5–6; 20:3–5),2 they too had a priesthood. Israel’s priesthood was founded by the Lord: “Bring near to you Aaron, your brother, and his sons with him, from among the Israelites, that he may be a priest for me” (Exod 28:1). Exodus 29:1 begins the specifi c procedures the Lord delineated to Moses concerning the inauguration of the priesthood: “And this is the thing which you will do to them in order to make them holy, to be priests for me.” Leviticus 8 is depicted as providing the fulfi llment of these prescriptions.3 Not only is the initiation as a whole intended to hallow Aaron and his sons before the Lord, but every step of the initiation sanctifi ed them a little more, thereby elevating them above the rest of the congregation of Israel.4 1. All scriptures are translated from Hebrew by the author unless otherwise stated. 2. Th e commandments the Lord placed upon Israel caused them to be unique among the nations, particularly the fi rst and second commandments (Exod 20:3–5). Another unique distinguisher is that the Lord, YHWH, seems to be a deity unique to the kingdom of Israel. See also James L. Kugel, How to Read the Bible: A Guide to Scripture, Th en and Now (New York: Free Press, 2007), 241–42. 3. See Jacob Milgrom, Leviticus 1–16 (AB 3; New York: Doubleday, 1991), 545–49 and Baruch A. Levine, “Th e Descriptive Tabernacle Texts of the Pentateuch,” JAOS 85.3 (1965), 311, for a summary concerning the dependence of Leviticus 8 on Exodus 29. 4. For anointing as a symbol of an elevation in status, see Milgrom, Leviticus 1–16, 553.  biggerstaff: the anointing of aaron Priests functioned as intermediaries between the human and the divine.5 One of their chief responsibilities was to protect Israel from sin and impurity. In Moses’ fi nal blessing to the tribe of Levi, he identifi ed three main ways priests were to accomplish this. He blessed them that “they shall teach your judgments to Jacob, and your law ((cid:11) (cid:14)(cid:23)(cid:24)(cid:25) (cid:26)) to Israel; they shall place incense before you, and whole burnt off erings upon your altar” (Deut 33:10).6 In other words, fi rst, the priests taught the law of the Lord, or the Mosaic law, which included both religious purity laws and secular civil laws—there was no separation between church and state. Second, they off ered incense unto the Lord. Th ird, they performed sacrifi ces on behalf of the people. Leviticus 1–7 depicts fi ve basic types of sacrifi ce, three of which explicitly mention an expiation factor. Additionally, Richard Hess mentions the duty priests had in “distinguishing between what is clean and unclean” (see Lev 10:10).7 In order to act in these responsibilities, priests needed to be pure and holy—the very thing the consecration ceremony ensured. Consecration of priests was a seven–day ritual. Although it is unclear what parts of the prescribed ritual were performed each day,8 the fact they occurred at all is telling. Th e ordination consisted of eleven subrituals dividable into four main groups: washing, robing, anointing, and sacrifi cing. In addition to initiating Aaron and his sons into the priesthood, the injunction “to make them holy” pervades each individual ritual of the ceremony (Exod 29:1). Aaron and his sons were fi rst washed to ensure ritual purity. After their purifi cation they were clothed with the vestments that would forever mark their offi ce; Aaron received the elaborate high priestly robes, whereas his sons received the plain white linen of the priests. Next Aaron, but not his sons, was anointed “to make him holy” (Lev 8:12). Th en a series of sacrifi ces were performed on behalf of all the initiates, including a sin off ering for the purpose of expiation. Another of the sacrifi ces was a ram of consecration. During the ritual of this sacrifi ce, some of its blood was mingled with anointing oil and sprinkled upon Aaron and his sons, eff ectively anointing them, with the result that “he shall be made holy, and his vestments, and his sons, and his sons’ vestments with him” (Exod 29:21). Finally, Exodus 29:33 states that, “Th ey shall eat the food which made the atonement, to ordain them and to make them holy.” Th us the ordination ceremony ordained and sanctifi ed9 Aaron and his sons into the priesthood. A casual reading of the texts of Exodus and Leviticus, as the brief 5. Patrick Miller, Th e Religion of Ancient Israel (Louisville, Ky.: Westminster John Knox Press, 2000), 163–65. 6. See also, Miller, Ancient Israel, 165–71; Milgrom, Leviticus 1–16, 52–3; Baruch A. Levine, Leviticus (New York: JPS, 1989), xxxiv. 7. Richard S. Hess, Israelite Religions: An Archaeological and Biblical Survey (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 2007), 193. See also Kugel, How to Read the Bible, 290. 8. See William H. C. Propp, Exodus 19–40 AB 2A (New York: Doubleday, 2006), 468–69 and Milgrom, Leviticus 1–16, 536–40, for a short summary of the complications. 9. In Hebrew, the verb (cid:27) (cid:2) (cid:28) means “to be holy, to make holy, to consecrate, and to dedicate.” studia antiqua . – fall   summary above provides, may leave a reader with the idea that Aaron and his sons were equally purifi ed and set apart. However, that is not the case. A closer examination of these texts demonstrates that Aaron received diff erent garments and was anointed twice (his sons only once). While the robes of the high priest are distinctive, sacred, and symbolic, they did not determine the high priest; the anointing did that.10 To this eff ect, both the prescription and fulfi llment depict Aaron as being anointed, (cid:29) (cid:30) (cid:31) , and sprinkled, (cid:11) ! , with oil that bore the scent and holiness of the Lord, whereas his sons were only sprinkled, (cid:11) ! . Additionally, Aaron (not his sons) was anointed at a time that equated his holiness with that of the Tabernacle and its objects—most holy. Finally, the manner in which Aaron was anointed, (cid:29) (cid:30) (cid:31) , was the capstone to his being elevated above his sons in holiness. Whereas other texts, including some of the prescriptions, depict Aaron’s sons as also being anointed (see Exod 28:41; 30:30; 40:15; Lev 7:35–36; Num 3:3), the anointing unique to Aaron further set him apart—both spiritually and authoritatively—from his sons as demonstrated by the special properties of the anointing oil itself, the location and time of his anointment, as well as the method with which he was anointed. Th e Anointing Oil Role of Scent Th e olfactory sense orients individuals in life.11 Just as the aroma of cooking food indicates an upcoming meal, other scents herald their associated contexts. Th ese harbingers thus permit individuals to orient themselves in life.12 As such, one can mentally prepare the pallet for dinner or even ascertain if a child is ill. While these two brief examples demonstrate an obvious benefi t of the olfactory sense to a modern individual, the value of the sense of smell to an ancient Israelite was far greater.13 In addition to the modern benefi cence of smell, ancient Israel affi xed a rich religious context. Th e law of Moses consisted of strict purity laws by which one could easily become defi led. Many of these contagious impurities emanated a foreboding scent, signaling the befouled area. In this way, the role of scent was twofold: fi rst, it aided an Israelite in avoiding a situation in which they could become impure; second, the scent identifi ed the nature of the area. In detail, both those points are distinct. However, in reality, they are one in the same as the nature of an area either defi les or it does not. Bad smells were indicative of impure areas, being associated with disease and death (see Exod 7:18, 21; 8:10; 16:20, 24; Isa 3:24; 10. See Levine, Leviticus, 48. 11. See C. Houtman, “On the Function of the Holy Incense (Exodus XXX 34–8) and the Sacred Anointing Oil (Exodus XXX 22–33),” VT 42, no. 4 (1992): 458. I am greatly indebted to this article in providing a catalyst of thoughts and inspiration that fueled my current understanding on the role of scent to ancient Israelite society. 12. Houtman, “Holy Incense,” 458. 13. Houtman, “Holy Incense,” 458. Also note that on at least two occasions, the God of Israel was contrasted against the pagan gods because He could smell (see Deut 4:28 and Ps 115:6).  biggerstaff: the anointing of aaron 34:3; Joel 2:20; Amos 4:10: Ps 38:6; Eccl 10:1).14 On the other hand, pleasant aromas were associated with health and life, thus indicating places of neutral or positive purity (see Hos 14:7; Song 4:10–11; 5:5, 13).15 In short, scent was the fi rst indicator as to whether one was heading into a ritually unclean locale, and a warning to those about to enter a place too holy for them—one in which they would become the defi ling presence, such as the tabernacle. Scent not only designated the nature of specifi c areas but also of individual people (see Gen 27:27).16 A unique aspect of life is that everyone has their own personal odor composed of the chemical make-up of their body as well as the lifestyle they live. Individuals have little control over their chemical composition, but they are more or less dominant over their lifestyle. Th e more willingly and passionately an individual works, the more embedded they become in their work, and their work in them. On the other hand, the more distanced and grudgingly an individual works, the less embedded they are in their work, and the less likely their work becomes a part of them. Each occupation has a unique scent to it; a tanner smells considerably diff erent than a potter, both of whom have a diff erent aroma than a farmer. Furthermore, lifestyle and work is a daily occurrence. Th rough repetition of actions and habits a person becomes what they do. Th us a person who farms the land becomes a farmer and someone who builds becomes an architect. Additionally, some individuals may have worked multiple part–time jobs or engaged in other personal interests. Whatever the case may have been, the things individuals do and know relate to who they are; farmers do not know as much about architecture as an architect does, and vice versa. Bringing this together, an individual has his own body odor, which is then augmented by his lifestyle, hobbies, and occupation.17 It is in this way that each person has his own unique, personalized identifying scent. Th is scent identifi es the personality of the individual as well as their occupation and status (see e.g. Jer 48:11; Hos 14:7; Ps 45:9; Song 7:9; Esther 2:12).18 One of the best biblical examples of this is the story of Jacob and Esau. “Esau was a skillful hunter, a man of the fi eld; and Jacob was a peaceful man, dwelling in tents” (Gen 25:27). Each of these occupations—so to speak—bore a unique scent as the rest of the story attests. As Isaac neared his deathbed he desired to bless Esau, his fi rstborn (Gen 27:2–4). However, Rebekah plotted with Jacob to steal the blessing from Esau (Gen 27:6–13). In the course of the deception, Rebekah and Jacob took several measures, not the least of which 14. See Houtman, “Holy Incense,” 458–59. 15. See Houtman, “Holy Incense,” 459. 16. See also Houtman, “Holy Incense,” 459. 17. Individuals are often born into a certain socio–economic status that sets certain bounds beyond which they cannot progress. Furthermore, children often carry on the work of their parents. How often an individual was able to obtain an apprenticeship outside of the family business (so–to–speak) is unknown. Th us, how much of their lifestyle an individual was able to choose is debatable, to a point. Even if forced into labor, one has the choice of how hard and willingly they will work. 18. See Houtman, “Holy Incense,” 459. studia antiqua . – fall   was Jacob’s donning of Esau’s clothing and having the skin of goats somehow attached to his hands and neck (Gen 27:15–16). When Jacob brings Isaac savory meat, Genesis says that Isaac “did not recognize him [Jacob] because his hands were hairy, like the hands of his brother Esau; so he blessed him” (Gen 27:23 [17–23]). However, the blessing did not actually take place until Jacob came near his father and Isaac subsequently “smelled the odor of his raiment, and blessed him, and said, ‘See! Th e smell of my son is as the smell of a fi eld which the Lord has blessed’” (Gen 27:27). Over time, the clothing of Esau had begun to smell like its owner. If Jacob had not worn it, he would not have smelled like Esau—like a man of the fi eld—and Isaac would not have continued with the blessing. Th e Lord’s Scent Some individuals, for the right price, would obtain perfumes and oils and subsequently rub, or anoint, them into their skin, thus masking their scent and granting a new one (see 2 Sam 12:20; 14:2; Amos 6:6; Mic 6:15; Ruth 3:3). While many rich Israelites enjoyed this luxury, so did the priests. However, the priests were the only Israelites permitted to use the “holy anointing oil” on penalty of exile by the Lord (see Exod 30:32–33). Th is oil bears the Lord’s scent. In order to be so designated, there was a strict, divinely mandated recipe to be followed. “Take unto yourself choice spices: 500 shekels of liquid myrrh, half as much [250 shekels] aromatic cinnamon, 250 shekels sweet cane, and 500 shekels cassia—all according to the sanctuary shekel—and a hin of oil olive” (Exod 30:23–24). Th at is, 1500 shekel weight of solid aromatic to 1 hin of liquid. Milgrom suggests “the proportions work out to about 1 pint olive oil to 54 pounds of dry spices,”19 while Durham claims the solid aromatics total 33½ lbs.20 Which of the two is correct is not as important, or relevant, as the realization that the amount of solid matter to liquid is astounding. Durham notes how the process of production suggested by Lucas below provides a plausible explanation for how the high ratio of solid to liquid can produce a nonviscous ointment.21 Lucas “describes the Egyptian process of pressing gum resins with oil, then removing the oil by squeezing the resultant paste in a cloth to extract the oil. Th e oil thus became the base, one that absorbed and then retained the fragrance of . . . aromatic substances.”22 Th e oil would then be kept while the solid mass is disposed of. Th ough Lucas is describing an Egyptian method, it is likely that the early Israelites would have used a similar process. Th is procedure would ensure the oil would be especially fragrant. 19. Milgrom, Leviticus 1–16, 498. 20. John I. Durham, Exodus, WBC 3 (Waco, Tex.: Word Books, 1987), 407. 21. Durham, Exodus, 407. 22. Durham, Exodus, 407. Durham goes on to express the likelihood of this method because of Exodus’ mention of “a spice–mixer’s mortar” in Exodus 30:25: “You are to blend these into a sacred Oil of Anointment, compounded in a spice–mixer’s mortar, as a spice– mixer’s blend. Th is is to be the sacred Oil of Anointment” (Durham’s translation; Durham, Exodus, 405).  biggerstaff: the anointing of aaron Since each ingredient itself is highly aromatic, the combination would produce a powerful, potent, and unique liquid fragrance. Such a pungent and sacred smell would attract the rich and poor alike. As such, the Lord unequivocally forbade the duplication or use of this oil for any purpose outside that which was explicitly stated by Him. “It shall not be rubbed in an ordinary anointing upon the fl esh of man, and you shall not make anything similar to its composition; it is holy and it shall be holy to you. Whoever makes an ointment similar to it, or puts any of it on an unqualifi ed person, shall be cut off from his people” (Exod 30:32–33). Th us the Lord jealously claims and protects this recipe. Any who are anointed with this sacred anointing oil are anointed with the scent of the Lord. Th is scent, in light of the previously discussed role and worldview of scent, would, to some degree, transmit a level of the status and personality of the Lord to whoever, or whatever, was being anointed.23 Since the Lord is holy (see Lev 11:44–45; 19:2; 20:26; 21:8; and many more), those anointed with his scent will be made holy, as Leviticus 8:12 explicitly states takes place when Aaron is anointed: “And he [Moses] poured some of the anointing oil upon Aaron’s head, and anointed him in order to make him holy” (emphasis added). Th e Lord is also a deliverer, as evidenced by the Exodus (Exod 3–14). Th us, whoever, and whatever, is anointed will similarly function as a deliverer for the people since the priests performed, through their sacrifi cial responsibilities, an “atoning role [which was] essential for both forgiveness (Lev 4–5) and purifi cation (Lev 12–15).”24 Since the holy anointing oil represented the scent, personality, and status of the Lord, every drop upon an individual’s skin brought that individual closer to the Lord. Th us the greater the amount of the Lord’s scent one was anointed with, the greater the connection with the Lord. Th is connection merits greater holiness and a greater delivering role. Aaron’s sons had some of the holy anointing oil sprinkled upon them (Exod 29:21 and Lev 8:30).25 Th us they were partakers of a degree of the Lord’s holiness placing them on a holier sphere than the unanointed congregation of Israel. Having been anointed to a degree, they also partook of the Lord’s status as deliverer by presiding over sacrifi ces (see Lev 1–7). However, these sons of Aaron were anointed through a sprinkling of a mixture of blood and holy anointing oil upon them. Aaron was also anointed this same way, but in addition, he also had an unspecifi ed amount of the oil poured upon his head (see Ps 133:2). Whatever this amount—it was at least twice as much as his sons—he was thereby further 23. Houtman, “Holy Incense,” 464–65 phrases it this way: “Anointing oil of the prescribed composition is reserved by YHWH for use in his cult . . . By claiming the exclusive right to the composition of the sacred anointing oil, YHWH reserves its special fragrance for himself. By anointing ‘his’ fragrance is transmitted . . . So they are marked by his personality.” 24. James W. Watts, Ritual and Rhetoric in Leviticus: From Sacrifi ce to Scripture (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2007), 143. 25. Elsewhere the Bible refers to Aaron’s sons as being anointed (see Exod 28:41; 30:30; 40:15; Lev 7:35–36; 10:7; Num 3:3). Th erefore this sprinkling can be seen as a form of anointing. studia antiqua . – fall   set apart and placed in a holier sphere than even his sons. Likewise, Aaron participates in the delivering role of the Lord to a greater extent than his sons, as can be seen by his preeminence during the Day of Atonement (Lev 16).26 In short, though Aaron’s sons were anointed with the holy anointing oil, and thus with a portion of the personality and status of the Lord, Aaron was anointed with a greater amount of the oil, and thus with a greater portion of the personality and status of the Lord. Th erefore the nature of the anointing oil alone depicts Aaron as being set apart beyond that of his sons. Location and Timing of the Anointing Tabernacle In addition to the special properties of the anointing oil, the order and location of Aaron’s anointment in comparison to his sons was an even more unmistakable sign of demarcation. As already mentioned, an impure area had the power to contaminate any who entered, thus making them ritually unclean (see Lev 14:46).27 While some forms of impurity could be cured with the passing of the day (see Lev 11; 14:46; 15:5–28; 17:15), many required a priest’s declaration as well as the off ering of a sacrifi ce (see Lev 12; 13–14; 15:28–30). Th is was the function of the priests. But before the Lord commanded Moses to “take thou unto thee Aaron thy brother, and his sons with him, from among the children of Israel, that he may minister unto me in the priest’s offi ce” (Exod 28:1), there were no priests authorized to purify the people.28 Th e Lord inaugurated his priesthood after he provided for a pure and holy place in which to do it; a place set apart from the impurities of the world, a place where the Lord’s holiness could be free to purify individuals as they obeyed His set laws of purifi cation.29 Until that time, there was no such place in the camp of 26. See Milgrom, Leviticus 1–16, 54–55, in which he mentions that the Day of Atonement is part of the high priest’s duty because he is responsible for all of Israel; also Hess, Israelite Religions, 183–84. 27. Houtman, “Holy Incense,” 460–61 discusses how impurity can be spread through breath. Th us as the unclean breath disseminates in the area around the source, it pollutes the air thereby creating a ritually unclean area. It is distinctly possible that one of the purposes of the holy anointing oil and holy incense is to combat this unclean air. As sin spreads abroad in the camp of Israel, the air becomes contaminated, threatening the Tabernacle, which in turn threatens the presence of the Lord. Th e Lord’s scent associated with the holy incense and holy anointing oil would then be seen as combating the unclean air. 28. Th e author is aware that the biblical text indicates that the ritual purity laws were established simultaneously with the construction of the Tabernacle and the inauguration of the priesthood. However, the author is also aware that much of the law of Moses appears to have been a codifi cation of traditional laws. As such, many of the laws pertaining to ritual purity were likely already practiced prior to Moses’ codifi cation of them. Th us the law of Moses, whether or not it introduced new laws, provided the Lord’s approved way to be cleansed from ritual impurity. 29. See Hess, Israelite Religions, 183–84; here Hess identifi es three concentric circles of holy space, of which the Tabernacle is the center and holiest, the place where “God’s presence was made manifest in a special way and the divine life resided in all its power.”  biggerstaff: the anointing of aaron Israel.30 Th us the Lord instructed Moses, “Make me a sanctuary; that I may dwell among them” (Exod 25:8). Th e Lord did not want just any structure. He had a specifi c design in mind as indicated by the fact that he showed Moses the pattern—(cid:25) (cid:19)!"#$ % (cid:23)& after which the tabernacle was to be built (Exod 25:9, 40; 26:30; 27:8; Num 8:4). It is not known whether the pattern was a vision of the completed structure, a comparable structure the tabernacle was to be built in the manner of, or if it was just the blueprint detailed in Exodus.31 What is known is that the text explicitly states that the tabernacle was commanded and designed by the Lord. Th e tabernacle was designed to be a portable temple.32 A temple, in the most literal and basic sense, is best defi ned by the biblical Hebrew phrase used to describe it: the house of the Lord (or God).33 Th is connection between the tabernacle and the temple is exemplifi ed by one of the Hebrew words for tabernacle, ’((cid:23) (cid:30)$ (cid:31)" , which means “dwelling” or “dwelling place.”34 After all, the Lord expressed to Moses: “have them make me a sanctuary;35 that I may dwell among them” (Exod 25:8, emphasis added; see also Exod 29:45–46). Besides being a dwelling place of the Lord, the tabernacle was to serve several functions. It was to be a place of revelation where the Lord could commune with Moses (Exod 25:22; 29:42). Another name of the Tabernacle was the “tent of meeting,” ) *+ (cid:24)(cid:31) , (cid:11)- ./ , because the Lord said on one occasion, “there I will meet with you [Moses]” (Exod 25:22) and on another occasion, “I will meet the Israelites there” (Exod 29:43). Th e Book of Leviticus furthers identifi es the tabernacle as the location of sacrifi ce, and thus atonement (Lev 1–7). Each of these functions of the tabernacle had one purpose in mind: to 30. Gordon J. Wenham, Th e Book of Leviticus (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1979), 129 claims that the purpose of the establishment of this religious institution was to not only worship the Lord, but to provide a way to atone for human sins. He continued by stating that it was “to this end the tabernacle was erected, so that God’s presence could become a permanent and living reality in Israel’s religious life. Th e tabernacle was furnished with the ark and altars, and all the other equipment necessary for making atonement.” 31. See Victor Hurowitz, “Th e Priestly Account of Building the Tabernacle,” JAOS 105.1 (1985), 21–30, esp. 22. 32. Hess, Israelite Religions, 203–5 and Kugel, How to Read the Bible, 288 provide a brief overview of Near Eastern antecedents of the tabernacle as well as briefl y identifying the similarities between the tabernacle and temple. See also Levine, Leviticus, xxxvii where he says “the desert tabernacle described in the priestly tradition is modeled after actual temples” and later on page 48 where he links the tabernacle and Temple of Jerusalem. 33. Th e Hebrew has several ways of spelling “House of the Lord/God.” Th ese are 0 12 0 (cid:10) 067 (cid:3)3 4 (cid:3)(cid:5)5 (House of the Lord), (cid:3) (cid:7)8 4 (cid:3)(cid:5)5 (House of God/gods), (cid:6) (cid:7)5 4 (cid:3)(cid:5)5 (House of God), 02 2 0 7 (cid:7) (cid:6) (cid:7)8 4 (cid:3)(cid:5)5 (House of God; Aramaic), and9(cid:4) (cid:3) 5 (cid:7)8 4 (cid:3)(cid:5)5 (House of our God). 0= 2 6 34. Other names for the tabernacle are (cid:2) :5 ;< (cid:6) (cid:7)> (tent of meeting) and (cid:27) ? (cid:28)3< (sanctuary). William J. Hamblin and David Rolph Seely, Solomon’s Temple: Myth and History (New York: Th ames and Hudson, 2007), 18 states: “Th e Lord identifi ed the primary purpose of the tabernacle as follows: ‘let them make me a sanctuary that I amy dwell among them’ (Exod. 25:8); for this reason it is called the ‘dwelling place’ (mishkan), ‘the house of Yahweh (or the Lord)’ (bet Yahweh), and the ‘sanctuary’ (miqdash).” See also Levine’s discussion on pages 4, 48 of Levine, Leviticus. 2 6 35. Th e Hebrew word for sanctuary is (cid:27) ? (cid:28)3< from the root (cid:27) (cid:2) (cid:28) . Th us the Tabernacle, by defi nition is not only the dwelling place of the Lord, but is also holy. studia antiqua . – fall   draw Israel to their Lord. For this purpose, the Lord is said to dwell in the tabernacle. Th us dwelling, he is able to speak to Moses as needed, commune with the Israelites when they draw near to worship, and pardon sins and purify impurities when they sacrifi ce. Th e presence of the Lord not only blesses and purges the Israelites, but also designates the tabernacle as holy.36 Ritual Space Th e holy area of the tabernacle was a ritual space. (In other words, it was a space in which the rituals of the Lord were performed.) Th e most obvious rituals were those of sacrifi ce and atonement, but incense rituals were also performed (for sacrifi ce, see Lev 1–7; 16; for incense, see Exod 30:7; 40:27; Lev 10:1; 16:12–13; Num 4:6; 16[16–17:15]; Deut 33:10). Th ese rituals extended beyond purifying the Israelites to the appeasement of the Lord in order that his presence might remain at the tabernacle (since the Lord is holy and cannot abide the slightest impurity).37 As Miller phrases it, “holiness in one area required holiness for whatever impinged upon that area, and the holiness of one thing worked to protect and safeguard the holiness of another.”38 Th e tabernacle was the center of the camp of Israel,39 and thus it impinged on the camp and the camp on it. Milgrom argues that the tabernacle is defi led when any within the camp of Israel sin, thus he proposes a concept of collective responsibility for sin (see Lev 15:31).40 For this purpose, daily and yearly purifi cation sacrifi ces were off ered in order to maintain the Lord’s presence (for (cid:25) (cid:19)!"#$ %@ see Exod 29:38–42; for yearly, see Lev 16).41 Th e Lord did not himself perform any of these rituals; priests did. Th ese priests were required to maintain high levels of ritual purity, as evidenced in Leviticus 21.42 Th eir level of holiness directly impacted the Lord’s presence because if they were impure, they would be unable to maintain the sanctity of the tabernacle.43 If a priest was either ritually unclean or performed some other breach against the holiness code and was simultaneously offi ciating in the offi ce of priest, one of two things would take place to ensure the Lord’s holiness would not be in jeopardy—or to ensure the Lord would not be mocked, depending upon how 36. See Miller, Ancient Israel, 137, 142. Kugel, How to Read the Bible, 291 states that “God’s holiness rubs off … on whatever is close to Him or belongs to Him….It thus seems that God’s holiness is not only His salient characteristic, but one that radiates out and sticks in various degrees to everything that is His or is near Him.” See also previous note. 37. Levine, Leviticus, 48 states: “As the presence of God was welcomed at the Tabernacle, extreme care had to be exercised to protect it from impurity.” 38. Miller, Ancient Israel, 143. 39. While the Bible seems to convey diff ering traditions on the actual location of the tabernacle in relation to the camp (see Exod 33:7 and Num 2), there can be little doubt that the tabernacle functioned as the religious center. 40. See Milgrom, Leviticus 1–16, 49–50, 258–61; Jacob Milgrom, “Israel’s Sanctuary: Th e Priestly ‘Picture of Dorian Gray,’” RB 83 (1976): 390–99. 41. See also Levine, Leviticus, xxxiv. 42. Levine, Leviticus, xxxiv. 43. Levine, Leviticus, xxxiv states, “Th e priesthood was charged with maintaining the purity of the Sanctuary.”