Anatolian region. page 1 European Environment Agency Europe’s biodiversity — biogeographical regions and seas Biogeographical regions in Europe The Anatolian region — the biogeographical transition to Asia Original contributions from ETC/NPB: Sophie Condé, Dominique Richard (coordinators) Nathalie Liamine (editor) Anne-Sophie Leclère (data collection and processing) Barbara Sotolargo (drafting) Ulla Pinborg (final co-editor) Map production: UNEP/GRID Warsaw (final production) Project manager: Tor-Björn Larsson, EEA ZooBoTech HB, Sweden, Linus Svensson (final edition) Anatolian region. page 2 Summary............................................................................................................3 1. What are the main characteristics and trends of the Anatolian biogeographical region?.....................................................................................3 1.1 General characteristics..............................................................................3 1.1.1 Extent and boundaries ...........................................................................3 1.1.2 Geomorphology and topography..............................................................3 1.1.3 Soils....................................................................................................4 1.1.4 Climate................................................................................................5 1.2 Present biodiversity status and trends: habitats, fauna and flora.............5 1.2.1 Habitats...............................................................................................5 1.2.1.1 Steppes.............................................................................................5 1.2.1.2 Forests..............................................................................................7 1.2.1.3 The alpine zone..................................................................................8 1.2.1.4 Wetlands...........................................................................................8 1.2.2 Fauna..................................................................................................9 2. Main issues of biodiversity in relation to human activities............................11 2.1 Main pressure on biodiversity .................................................................11 2.1.1 Agriculture, reed harvesting and fisheries................................................11 2.1.2 Introduction of alien species..................................................................11 2.1.3 Construction of large scale reservoirs.....................................................12 2.1.4 Over-grazing and clear-cutting of forests................................................13 3. Some initiaves for biodiversity on nature conservation in the region...........14 3.1 Nature conservation policies...................................................................14 3.2 Ramsar Convention.................................................................................15 3.3 Integration of biodiversity in socioeconomic practices............................15 3.4 Research and monitoring programmes....................................................15 4. Bibliography.................................................................................................16 Anatolian region. page 3 Summary • Covers the interior and eastern part of Anatolia (Turkey) which is a biogeographical transition to Asia. • Large differences between summer and winter temperatures, low levels of precipitation in most of the area. • Xerophytic and salt steppes dominate, the flora has a high level of endemisms. • Several of the mammal species found are of Asian or North African origin. • Agriculture and drainage, as well as the introduction of alien species, construction of dams and over-grazing are threats to biodiversity. 1. What are the main characteristics and trends of the Anatolian biogeographical region? 1.1 General characteristics 1.1.1 Extent and boundaries The region corresponds to the interior and eastern part of the Anatolian peninsula, having no contact with the Black Sea or the Mediterranean. The region extends over three different geographical areas: the central Anatolian Plateau, the east Anatolian mountain range and the northern Mesopotamia. 1.1.2 Geomorphology and topography Structurally, the region is located within the geologically recently-folded mountain zone of Eurasia. The geology of the region is complex, with sedimentary rocks ranging from Paleozoic to Quaternary, numerous intrusions, and extensive areas of volcanic material. Although there are no active volcanoes, the geological structure of most of the region is unstable. Faulting and folding are widespread and mountain-building is still in progress. This is particularly conducive to earthquakes. The central massif is often referred to as the Anatolian Plateau, although its relief is much more varied than this term suggests. Nevertheless, there are large areas of flat or gently sloping land. Elevations are of about 900 m. Further to the east, the Pontic and Taurus mountains converge to produce an extensive area of mostly mountainous terrain with pockets of relatively level land in valleys and enclosed basins. A noteworthy feature is the extensive area with geologically recent volcanic activity. That complex group of mountain ranges contains the highest mountain in the region, Mount Ararat, reaching 5 137 m. The southeast is characterised by a relatively gentle relief, with broad plateau surfaces resting on a stable massif, the Arabian platform. At the center of this zone, the volcanic Mount Karaca reaches 1 920 m. The four major rivers in the region are the Euphrates, the Tigris, the Kizilirmak and the Sakarya. The first two drain through Mesopotamia to the Gulf of Iran and the latter two flows into the Black Sea through the neighbouring Black Sea region. Arms of the Euphrates River form extensive areas of natural floodplains at high altitudes in the north and the river has not been regulated. The rivers forming the Konya Basin, the Akarcay Basin and the Van Basin dry out before they reach the sea. Anatolian region. page 4 Table 1. Statistics for the Anatolian biogeographical region Surface area Number of National composition by Population (km2) countries area (inhabitants/km2) in region 450 000 1 Turkey 100 % 77 Sources: various sources by ETC/NPB and EEA. Note that the region covers only 57 % of Turkey. 1.1.3 Soils Red and grey-brown podzolic soils, along with brown forest soils, represent the most extensive group of soils. These occur mainly in mountainous areas as a broad belt around the northern, western, and southern sides of the Anatolian interior and are associated with the more humid climatic zones. The red and grey-brown podzolic soils are moderately leached and somewhat acidic, the red type occurring in the wetter and warmer areas. Brown forest soils are generally developed on calcareous rocks and are less acidic than the red and gray-brown podzolic soils. Brown and reddish brown soils are characteristic of the driest parts of the region, mainly in the semiarid zones of central Anatolia and in the southeast; they support extensive dryland grain production. Chestnut soils are found on a smaller scale in the same regions as the brown and reddish brown group but under slightly more humid conditions where the parent materials are calcareous. Serozems — highly alkaline semi desert grey soils — are found in the driest areas, notably in the Konya basin and the Aras valley. Alluvial soils are found in the basins of central and eastern Anatolia. They support the most intensive agriculture. Map 1. Physiography of the Anatolian biogeographical region Anatolian region. page 5 1.1.4 Climate In general, the climate of the region is characterised by relatively large differences between the average summer and winter temperatures. Annual precipitation is very low in the central Anatolian Plateau and northern Mesopotamia ranging between 280 and 400 mm annually. In the East Anatolian mountain range, precipitation is slightly higher reaching up to 550 mm per year. However, annual precipitation might reach up to 2 000 mm locally in mountainous areas south of the Van Lake. Northern Mesopotamia is warmer than other areas of the region, both in summer and winter. The area is characterised by extremely high summer temperatures (above 30 ºC in July). The East Anatolian mountain range has extremely cold winters with an average temperature of – 15/– 5 ºC in January whereas the average summer temperatures are between 16 and 23 ºC. The Central Anatolian Plateau is warmer than in the east having an average of 20/25 ºC in summer and 1/– 5 ºC in winter. 1.2 Present biodiversity status and trends: habitats, fauna and flora 1.2.1 Habitats The Anatolian biogeographic region is the westernmost part of the Irano-Turanian phytogeographical region and western Asian elements constitute a major proportion of its species diversity. However, elements from the Mediterranean, Euro-Siberia (including the Black Sea) and North Africa are also present where topographical and climatic conditions provide suitable habitats. Table 2. Main habitat types in the Anatolian biogeographical region, as defined by EUNIS (European Nature Information System) habitat classification Habitat type Proportion Regularly or recently cultivated habitats and gardens 49 % Heathland and scrub habitats 42 % Woodland and forest habitats and other wooded lands 4 % Freshwater aquatic habitats 3 % Grassland habitats 2 % Bare soil < 1 % Constructed industrial and other artificail habitats < 1 % Sources: ETC/NPB, estimation based on 68 % of the region. 1.2.1.1 Steppes Steppic habitats represent the major natural vegetation in the region. Much of the steppes has, however, been converted into arable land or is under considerable pressure from over-grazing. Two different types of primary steppes can be distinguished: steppes dominated by xerophytic species and salt steppes in saline soils around salt-lakes. The characteristic plant species of dry, deep-soiled plain steppe of the Konya Basin in the west is wormwood (Artemisia santonicum). General coverage of the herbaceous plant layer can reach up to 90 %. Artemisia santonicum has a dominance of 50–60 % and it may grow up to 20–40 cm. However, biomass of the existing Artemisia steppes is generally very low due to excessive grazing which also has the effect of decreasing the Anatolian region. page 6 diversity of species. Many of the species that form associations with A. santonicum are endemic, for example the thyme Thymus sipyleus and drooping brome Bromus tectorum. The steppes in the southeast are of a semi-desert character with some typical plants such as Artemisia herba-alba, Eryngium noerium and Salvia spinosa. Bromus tectorum, a grass species forming associations with Artemisia in the steppes of the Anatolian region. Photo: Keir Morse. The vegetation of mountainous steppes differs from that of the plain in terms of species diversity and composition. At shallow-soiled places of mountains that suffer from over-grazing and erosion, thorny shrub habitats are dominated by sea-lavander species (Astracantha spp. and Acantholimon spp.). The sainfoin Onobrychis cornuta is a characteristic species of mountainous steppe at the northern slopes of the Taurus Mountains facing the Konya Basin. Some examples of the most important plant species used for grazing in the mountainous steppe are Thymus sipyleus, Bromus tomentellus, Hedysarum pestalozzae and Globularia orientalis. Extensive areas of salt steppe exist in Central Anatolia and in the Igdir Plain. These areas are dominated by species in the goosefoot family, Chenopodiaceae, and the family Plumbaginaceae. Salt steppes and marshes of the Konya Basin, particularly those of the Lake Tuz area, have a very high proportion of plant endemism. Gladiolus halophilus and Acantholimon halophilum are species of a monotypic endemic genus, and Hypericum salsugineum and Taraxacum mirabile are examples of endemic species. In general, at least one salt lake lies at the centre of each salt steppic area. Although salt steppes are originally not suitable for agriculture, drainage and irrigation schemes set up in recent years have leached these areas and converted them to arable land. In several places where ground water is pumped for irrigation, the salt-tolerant sugar beet has become the most widespread crop. Salt steppes are also used for grazing, though not as intensively as Artemisia steppes. However, there are still vast areas of pristine salt steppe in the Konya Basin. Secondary steppes formed by clearing and/or grazing of former scrub or forest areas cover the rest of Central Anatolia and large parts of the Eastern Anatolia interspersed with remnants of Quercus, Pinus and Juniperus species. Anatolian region. page 7 1.2.1.2 Forests Only 4 % of the region is covered by forests, which are found mainly in the east on the lower slopes of the mountains. In north Anatolia the relatively humid climate is reflected by in the predominantly mesophytic vegetation, characterized by deciduous forest, mainly dominated by Quercus spp. The largest unfragmented stands are confined to the range of mountains between the Lake Van and the border to Iraq. Pallas’s pine (Pinus nigra ssp. pallasiana) and Scots pine dominated forests extend mainly in the transition zone to the Black Sea region and stands of the former occur also locally in the south of Central Anatolia. Pallas's pine grows between 1 200 and 1 800 m. Although it forms some pure stands where climate is more continental, it tends to form mixed consortia: e.g. in western Anatolia it is found mixed with P. brutia, Quercus spp., Juniperus spp. and Kazdaği fir (Abies equi trojana). On higher mountain slopes around the tree line, Pallas's pine forms sparse mixed forests with Juniperus spp. These forests also contain many species characteristic to steppe vegetation (e.g. Pyrus eleagnifolia, Prunus spinosa, Crateagus spp.) and many herbaceous species in the understorey. Forests composed of pines of the Pinus sylvestris group, mostly included in Pinus sylvestris ssp. hamata, are found in the Pontic range in northern Anatolia. Forests with Mediterranean elements such as Cedrus libani and Abies cilicica are present in the area surrounding Lake Beysehir, in western Anatolia. Cyclamen hederifolium, a frequently encountered geophyte in pine forests in the Anatolian region. Photo: Linus Svensson, ZooBoTech. Anatolian region. page 8 1.2.1.3 The alpine zone The alpine zone is confined to the high peaks of mountains. It extends above 2 000 m in the west while the tree line reaches 2 750 m in the northeast of the region. 1.2.1.4 Wetlands Wetlands are numerous and range from soda lakes to volcanic lakes. Lakes are usually closed basin systems surrounded by extensive reeds and marshes and are generally fed by small streams. The properties of the water of these lakes vary significantly depending on the nature of their underlying soil. The largest lake in the region is the Lake Van, a soda lake of 390 000 ha. Lake Van, Turkey. Its brackish water does not allow a high level of biodiversity. Source: www.gust.st. The lake is at 1 719 m a.s.l. located in an enclosed basin bordered by high mountains to the south, by plateau’s and mountains to the east, and by a complex of volcanic cones to the west. It has no outlets and drains an area of about 15 250 km2. Its brackish water allows for almost no animal life. However, the Darekh Alburnus tarichi, a freshwater fish related to the European bleak Alburnus alburnus, has adapted to the saline environment and spawns near the mouths of streams feeding the lake. It is the sole fish that can survive Lake Van’s brackish waters. The second largest is the Lake Tuz in the Konya Basin, a salt lake covering 260 000 ha. The lake is at 900 m a.s.l. and has no outlets. It is very shallow, expanding and contracting with the seasons. Other major lakes are freshwater wetlands: Keban Reservoir, Hirfanli Reservoir, Atatürk Reservoir and Beysehir Lake. Only the latter is of natural origin, the largest freshwater lake in Turkey covering 73 000 ha in the western Konya Basin. Keban and Atatürk reservoirs have been constructed on the main body of the river Euphrates and have had a negative impact on biodiversity. The lakes Balik, Nemrut, Cildir and Aktas situated at high altitudes in eastern Anatolia are of particular importance for biodiversity. They benefit from cool microclimatic conditions and are characterised by relict populations of a number of species generally occurring much further north. The Euphrates and Tigris rivers form important riparian habitats in eastern and south-eastern Anatolia with extensive floodplains. Tamarix scrub, stands of Populus, sand-banks and barren gravel islands are typical features. Several species of afro-tropical and oriental origin came to the Anatolian region following the course of these rivers. Both inland wetlands and riverine habitats in the region are critically threatened: current trends to drain wetlands and construct large scale reservoirs on Euphrates and Tigris may result in the extinction of many species and habitats confined only to this part of the region. Anatolian wetlands are of international importance because of their populations of birds and endemic fishes. Anatolian region. page 9 1.2.2 Fauna Information on the fauna of the region is very limited, especially concerning invertebrates. The diversity of invertebrates (mainly insects) is very high due to the exceptional richness in plants. No reliable estimate is available for the number of invertebrates, although it is assumed to be not less than 30 000 species. There are approximately 95 mammal species recorded in the region. Of these, 31 are of Asian or North African origin and do not occur in other parts of Europe. A number of species of particular importance to this biogeographic region are Persian mole Talpa streeti, striped hyaena Hyaena hyaena, Arabian sand gazella Gazella subgutturosa and the red sheep Ovis aries. Jungle cat Felis chaus, leopard Panthera pardus, Egyptian mongoose Herpestes ichneumon occur only in this region and in the adjacent part of the Mediterranean region. The Woolly Dormouse Dryomys laniger is a small mammal species endemic to Anatolia occurring above 2 000 m in the Taurus mountain. Many of these species have become very scarce since the 1970s. They are threatened with extinction and will probably disappear in one or two decades unless conservation action is urgently taken. The Anatolian leopard Panthera pardus tulliana is categorized as critically endangered, and the last known record of this subspecies in Turkey was in 1992 (Baskaya and Bilgili, 2004). The tiger Panthera tigris became extinct in the region in the late 1970s. Marmaronetta angustirostris, listed as vulnerable by IUCN. Photo: Arthur Grosset. As regards birds, 360 species regularly occur in the Anatolian region. They include many globally threatened species and species of European concern. Examples of globally threatened species breeding in the region are Dalmatian pelican Pelecanus crispus, marbled teal Marmaronetta angustirostris, imperial eagle Aquila heliaca, lesser kestrel Falco naumanni, corncrake Crex crex and great bustard Otis tarda. Some bird species’ range in Europe is confined to this region. These include see-see Ammoperdix griseogularis, greater sand-pluver Charadrius lescheaultii and mongolian trumpeter finch Bucanetes mongolicus. Populations of a large number of species, especially of those associated with riparian habitats, are decreasing at an alarming rate due to the constructions of large-scale reservoirs on Euphrates and Tigris. Flood plains in the region provide breeding grounds to many rare bird species including crane Grus and demoiselle crane Anthropoides virgo. Other important species of European concern are mainly confined to higher parts of mountains: caspian snowcock Tetraogallus caspius and radde’s accentor Prunella ocularis. Anatolian region. page 10 The mongolian trumpeter finch Bucanetes mongolicus, which distribution in Europe (including Turkey) is confined to the Anatolian region. Photo: Mike Prince. Ninetyfive species of herpetofauna — 14 amphibians and 81 reptiles — occur in the region. About 30 of these are of Asian origin, including three lizards which are endemic to the Anatolian region: Eremias suphani, Lacerta bedimahiensis and Lacerta sapphirina. Coastal viper Vipera xanthina is an endemic species to Turkey occurring in this region and in the adjacent part of the Mediterranean region. Ranges of many rare species are confined to Northern Mesopotamia and Igdir/Van area. The world population of the Euphrates softshell turtle, Refetus euphraticus, one of the most endangered species in the region, is confined to Euphrates and Tigris rivers, which are subject to large-scale dam constructions. Vipera (Montivipera) xantina is endemic to Turkey. Photo: Anders Selmer.