The Project Gutenberg EBook of The American Railway, by Thomas Curtis Clarke and Theodore Voorhees and John Bogart and and others This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. Title: The American Railway Its Construction, Development, Management, and Appliances Author: Thomas Curtis Clarke Theodore Voorhees John Bogart and others Release Date: March 18, 2017 [EBook #54383] Language: English Character set encoding: UTF-8 *** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE AMERICAN RAILWAY *** Produced by Chris Curnow, John Campbell and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images generously made available by The Internet Archive) TRANSCRIBER'S NOTE Details on minor changes can be found at the end of the book. THE AMERICAN RAILWAY THE LAST SPAN—READY TO JOIN. [Pg v] THE AMERICAN RAILWAY ITS CONSTRUCTION, DEVELOPMENT, MANAGEMENT, AND APPLIANCES BY THOMAS CURTIS CLARKE THEODORE VOORHEES JOHN BOGART BENJAMIN NORTON M. N. FORNEY ARTHUR T. HADLEY E. P. ALEXANDER THOMAS L. JAMES H. G. PROUT CHARLES FRANCIS ADAMS HORACE PORTER B. B. ADAMS, JR. WITH AN INTRODUCTION BY THOMAS M. COOLEY CHAIRMAN OF INTERSTATE COMMERCE COMMISSION WITH MORE THAN 200 ILLUSTRATIONS NEW YORK CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS 1889 [vi] Copyright, 1888, 1889, by CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS TROW'S PRINTING AND BOOKBINDING COMPANY, NEW YORK. CONTENTS. PAGE INTRODUCTION xxi By THOMAS M. COOLEY, Chairman Interstate Commerce Commission. THE BUILDING OF A RAILWAY 1 By THOMAS CURTIS CLARKE, Civil Engineer. Roman Tramways of Stone—First Use of Iron Rails—The Modern Railway created by Stephenson's "Rocket" in 1830— Early American Locomotives—Key to the Evolution of the American Railway—Invention of the Swivelling Truck, Equalizing Beams, and the Switchback—Locating a Road—Work of the Surveying Party—Making the Road-bed—How Tunnels are Avoided—More than Three Thousand Bridges in the United States—Old Wooden Structures—The Howe Truss—The Use of Iron—Viaducts of Steel—The American System of Laying Bridge Foundations under Water— Origin of the Cantilever—Laying the Track—How it is Kept in Repair—Premiums for Section Bosses—Number of Railway Employees in the United States—Rapid Railway Construction—Radical Changes which the Railway will Effect. FEATS OF RAILWAY ENGINEERING 47 By JOHN BOGART, State Engineer of New York. Development of the Rail—Problems for the Engineer—How Heights are Climbed—The Use of Trestles—Construction on a Mountain Side—Engineering on Rope Ladders—Through the Portals of a Cañon—Feats on the Oroya Railroad, Peru— Nochistongo Cut—Rack Rails for Heavy Grades—Difficulties in Tunnel Construction—Bridge Foundations—Cribs and Pneumatic Caissons—How Men work under Water—The Construction of Stone Arches—Wood and Iron in Bridge- building—Great Suspension Bridges—The Niagara Cantilever and the enormous Forth Bridge—Elevated and Underground Roads—Responsibilities of the Civil Engineer. AMERICAN LOCOMOTIVES AND CARS 100 By M. N. FORNEY, Author of "The Catechism of the Locomotive," Editor "Railroad and Engineering Journal," New York. The Baltimore & Ohio Railroad in 1830—Evolution of the Car from the Conestoga Wagon—Horatio Allen's Trial Trip—The First Locomotive used in the United States—Peter Cooper's Race with a Gray Horse—The "De Witt Clinton," "Planet," and other Early Types of Locomotives—Equalizing Levers—How Steam is Made and Controlled—The Boiler, Cylinder, Injector, and Valve Gear—Regulation of the Capacity of a Locomotive to Draw—Increase in the Number of Driving Wheels—Modern Types of Locomotives—Variation in the Rate of Speed—The Appliances by which an Engine is Governed—Round-houses and Shops—Development of American Cars—An Illustration from Peter Parley—The Survival of Stage Coach Bodies—Adoption of the Rectangular Shape—The Origin of Eight-wheeled Cars— Improvement in Car Coupling—A Uniform Type Recommended—The Making of Wheels—Relative Merits of Cast and Wrought Iron, and Steel—The Allen Paper Wheel—Types of Cars, with Size, Weight, and Price—The Car-Builder's Dictionary—Statistical. RAILWAY MANAGEMENT 149 By Gen. E. P. ALEXANDER, President of the Central Railroad and Banking Company of Georgia. [vii] [viii] Relations of Railway Management to all Other Pursuits—Developed by the Necessities of a Complex Industrial Life—How a Continuous Life is Given to a Corporation—Its Artificial Memory—Main Divisions of Railway Management—The Executive and Legislative Powers—The Purchasing and Supply Departments—Importance of the Legal Department— How the Roadway is Kept in Repair—The Maintenance of Rolling Stock—Schedule-making—The Handling of Extra Trains—Duties of the Train-despatcher—Accidents in Spite of Precautions—Daily Distribution of Cars—How Business is Secured and Rates are Fixed—The Interstate Commerce Law—The Questions of "Long and Short Hauls" and "Differentials"—Classification of Freight—Regulation of Passenger-rates—Work of Soliciting Agents—The Collection of Revenue and Statistics—What is a Way-bill—How Disbursements are Made—The Social and Industrial Problem which Confronts Railway Corporations. SAFETY IN RAILROAD TRAVEL 187 By H. G. PROUT, Editor "Railroad Gazette," New York. The Possibilities of Destruction in the Great Speed of a Locomotive—The Energy of Four Hundred Tons Moving at Seventy-five Miles an Hour—A Look ahead from a Locomotive at Night—Passengers Killed and Injured in One Year— Good Discipline the Great Source of Safety—The Part Played by Mechanical Appliances—Hand-brakes on Old Cars— How the Air-brake Works—The Electric Brake—Improvements yet to be Made—Engine Driver Brakes—Two Classes of Signals: those which Protect Points of Danger, and those which Keep an Interval between Trains on the Same Track —The Semaphore—Interlocking Signals and Switches—Electric Annunciators to Indicate the Movements—The Block Signal System—Protection for Crossings—Gates and Gongs—How Derailment is Guarded Against—Safety Bolts— Automatic Couplers—The Vestibule as a Safety Appliance—Car Heating and Lighting. RAILWAY PASSENGER TRAVEL 228 By Gen. HORACE PORTER, Vice-President Pullman Palace-Car Company. The Earliest Railway Passenger Advertisement—The First Time-table Published in America—The Mohawk & Hudson Train —Survival of Stage-coach Terms in English Railway Nomenclature—Simon Cameron's Rash Prediction—Discomforts of Early Cars—Introduction of Air-brakes, Patent Buffers and Couplers, the Bell-cord, and Interlocking Switches—The First Sleeping-cars—Mr. Pullman's Experiments—The "Pioneer"—Introduction of Parlor and Drawing-room Cars—The Demand for Dining-cars—Ingenious Devices for Heating Cars—Origin of Vestibule-cars—An Important Safety Appliance—The Luxuries of a Limited Express—Fast Time in America and England—Sleeping-cars for Immigrants— The Village of Pullman—The Largest Car-works in the World—Baggage-checks and Coupon Tickets—Conveniences in a Modern Depot—Statistics in Regard to Accidents—Proportion of Passengers in Various Classes—Comparison of Rates in the Leading Countries of the World. THE FREIGHT-CAR SERVICE 267 By THEODORE VOORHEES, Assistant-General Superintendent, New York Central Railroad. Sixteen Months' Journey of a Car—Detentions by the Way—Difficulties of the Car Accountant's Office—Necessities of Through Freight—How a Company's Cars are Scattered—The Question of Mileage—Reduction of the Balance in Favor of Other Roads—Relation of the Car Accountant's Work to the Transportation Department—Computation of Mileage —The Record Branch—How Reports are Gathered and Compiled—Exchange of "Junction Cards"—The Use of "Tracers"—Distribution of Empty Cars—Control of the Movement of Freight—How Trains are Made Up—Duties of the Yardmaster—The Handling of Through Trains—Organization of Fast Lines—Transfer Freight Houses—Special Cars for Specific Service—Disasters to Freight Trains—How the Companies Suffer—Inequalities in Payment for Car Service—The Per Diem Plan—A Uniform Charge for Car Rental—What Reforms might be Accomplished. HOW TO FEED A RAILWAY 298 By BENJAMIN NORTON, Second Vice-President, Long Island Railroad Company. The Many Necessities of a Modern Railway—The Purchasing and Supply Departments—Comparison with the Commissary Department of an Army—Financial Importance—Immense Expenditures—The General Storehouse—Duties of the Purchasing Agent—The Best Material the Cheapest—Profits from the Scrap-heap—Old Rails Worked over into New Implements—Yearly Contracts for Staple Articles—Economy in Fuel—Tests by the Best Engineers and Firemen—The Stationery Supply—Aggregate Annual Cost of Envelopes, Tickets, and Time-tables—The Average Life of Rails— Durability of Cross-ties—What it Costs per Mile to Run an Engine—The Paymaster's Duties—Scenes during the Trip of a Pay-car. THE RAILWAY MAIL SERVICE 312 By THOMAS L. JAMES, Ex-Postmaster General. An Object Lesson in Postal Progress—Nearness of the Department to the People—The First Travelling Post-Office in the United States—Organization of the Department in 1789—Early Mail Contracts—All Railroads made Post-routes— Compartments for Mail Clerks in Baggage-cars—Origin of the Present System in 1862—Important Work of Colonel George S. Bangs—The "Fast Mail" between New York and Chicago—Why it was Suspended—Resumption in 1877— Present Condition of the Service—Statistics—A Ride on the "Fast Mail"—Busy Scenes at the Grand Central Depot— Special Uses of the Five Cars—Duties of the Clerks—How the Work is Performed—Annual Appropriation for Special Mail Facilities—Dangers Threatening the Railway Mail Clerk's Life—An Insurance Fund Proposed—Needs of the Service—A Plea for Radical Civil Service Reform. [ix] [x] [xi] THE RAILWAY IN ITS BUSINESS RELATIONS 344 By ARTHUR T. HADLEY, Professor of Political Science in Yale College, Author of "Railroad Transportation." Amount of Capital Invested in Railways—Important Place in the Modern Industrial System—The Duke of Bridgewater's Foresight—The Growth of Half a Century—Early Methods of Business Management—The Tendency toward Consolidation—How the War Developed a National Idea—Its Effect on Railroad Building—Thomson and Scott as Organizers—Vanderbilt's Capacity for Financial Management—Garrett's Development of the Baltimore & Ohio—The Concentration of Immense Power in a Few Men—Making Money out of the Investors—Difficult Positions of Stockholders and Bondholders—How the Finances are Manipulated by the Board of Directors—Temptations to the Misuse of Power—Relations of Railroads to the Public who Use Them—Inequalities in Freight Rates—Undue Advantages for Large Trade Centres—Proposed Remedies—Objections to Government Control—Failure of Grangerism —The Origin of Pools—Their Advantages—Albert Fink's Great Work—Charles Francis Adams and the Massachusetts Commission—Adoption of the Interstate Commerce Law—Important Influence of the Commission—Its Future Functions—Ill-judged State Legislation. THE PREVENTION OF RAILWAY STRIKES 370 By CHARLES FRANCIS ADAMS, President of the Union Pacific Railroad. Railways the Largest Single Interest in the United States—Some Impressive Statistics—Growth of a Complex Organization— Five Divisions of Necessary Work—Other Special Departments—Importance of the Operating Department—The Evil of Strikes—To be Remedied by Thorough Organization—Not the Ordinary Relation between Employer and Employee—Of what the Model Railway Service Should Consist—Temporary and Permanent Employees—Promotion from one Grade to the Other—Rights and Privileges of the Permanent Service—Employment during Good Behavior—Proposed Tribunal for Adjusting Differences and Enforcing Discipline—A Regular Advance in Pay for Faithful Service—A Fund for Hospital Service, Pensions, and Insurance—Railroad Educational Institutions—The Employer to Have a Voice in Management through a Council—A System of Representation. THE EVERY-DAY LIFE OF RAILROAD MEN 383 By B. B. ADAMS, Jr., Associate Editor, "Railroad Gazette," New York. The Typical Railroad Man—On the Road and at Home—Raising the Moral Standard—Characteristics of the Freight Brakeman—His Wit the Result of Meditation—How Slang is Originated—Agreeable Features of his Life in Fine Weather—Hardships in Winter—The Perils of Hand-brakes—Broken Trains—Going back to Flag—Coupling Accidents—At the Spring—Advantages of a Passenger Brakeman—Trials of the Freight Conductor—The Investigation of Accidents—Irregular Hours of Work—The Locomotive Engineer the Hero of the Rail—His Rare Qualities—The Value of Quick Judgment—Calm Fidelity a Necessary Trait—Saving Fuel on a Freight Engine—Making Time on a Passenger Engine—Remarkable Runs—The Spirit of Fraternity among Engineers—Difficult Duties of a Passenger-train Conductor—Tact in Dealing with Many People—Questions to be Answered—How Rough Characters are Dealt with—Heavy Responsibilities—The Work of a Station Agent—Flirtation by Telegraph—The Baggage- master's Hard Task—Eternal Vigilance Necessary in a Switch-tender—Section-men, Train Despatchers, Firemen, and Clerks—Efforts to Make the Railroad Man's Life Easier. STATISTICAL RAILWAY STUDIES 425 ILLUSTRATED WITH THIRTEEN MAPS AND NINETEEN CHARTS. By FLETCHER W. HEWES, Author of "Scribner's Statistical Atlas." Railway Mileage of the World—Railway Mileage of the United States—Annual Mileage and Increase—Mileage Compared with Area—Geographical Location of Railways—Centres of Mileage and of Population—Railway Systems—Trunk Lines Compared: By Mileage; Largest Receipts; Largest Net Results—Freight Traffic—Reduction of Freight Rates— Wheat Rates—The Freight Haul—Empty Freight Trains—Freight Profits—Passenger Traffic—Passenger Rates— Passenger Travel—Passenger Profits—General Considerations—Dividends—Net Earnings per Mile and Railway Building—Ratios of Increase—Construction and Maintenance—Employees and their Wages—Rolling Stock—Capital Invested. INDEX 449 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. FULL-PAGE ILLUSTRATIONS. Title. Designer. Page The Last Span (Frontispiece) A. B. Frost v Alpine Pass. Avoidance of a Tunnel From a photograph 5 Big Loop, Georgetown Branch of the Union Pacific, Colorado From a photograph 11 [xii] [xiii] Snow-sheds, Selkirk Mountains, Canadian Pacific J. D. Woodward 19 Rail Making Walter Shirlaw 39 Loop and Great Trestle near Hagerman's, on the Colorado Midland Railway J. D. Woodward 51 Portal of a Tunnel in Process of Construction Otto Stark 65 At Work in a Pneumatic Caisson—Fifty Feet below the Surface of the Water Walter Shirlaw 73 Below the Brooklyn Bridge J. H. Twachtman 83 The St. Louis Bridge during Construction M. E. Sands & R. Blum 95 A Typical American Passenger Locomotive From a photograph 111 Interior of a Round-house M. J. Burns 130 View in Locomotive Erecting Shop J. D. Woodward & R. Blum 135 Diagram Used in Making Railway Time-Tables 161 The General Despatcher M. J. Burns 165 Mantua Junction, West Philadelphia, showing a Complex System of Interlacing Tracks W. C. Fitler 169 Danger Ahead! A. B. Frost 189 Interlocking Apparatus for Operating Switches and Signals by Compressed Air, Pittsburg Yards, Pennsylvania Railroad From a photograph 211 Pullman Vestibuled Cars From a photograph 247 In a Baggage-room W. C. Broughton 255 "Show Your Tickets!" Walter Shirlaw 261 Freight Yards of the New York Central & Hudson River Railroad, West Sixty-fifth Street, New York W. C. Fitler 285 Freight from all Quarters—Some Typical Trains W. C. Fitler 291 At a Way-station—The Postmaster's Assistant Herbert Denman 321 Transfer of Mail at the Grand Central Station, New York Herbert Denman 327 Sorting Letters in Car No. 1—The Fast Mail Herbert Denman 333 A Breakdown on the Road A. B. Frost 405 In the Waiting Room of a Country Station A. B. Frost 413 The Trials of a Baggage-master A. B. Frost 417 [xiv] ILLUSTRATIONS IN THE TEXT. PAGE First Locomotive 2 Locomotive of To-day 3 A Sharp Curve—Manhattan Elevated Railway, 110th Street, New York 7 A Steep Grade on a Mountain Railroad 8 A Switchback 9 Plan of Big Loop 10 Profile of the Same 10 Engineers in Camp 14 Royal Gorge Hanging Bridge, Denver and Rio Grande, Colorado 16 Veta Pass, Colorado 17 Sections of Snow-sheds (3 cuts) 18 Making an Embankment 21 Steam Excavator 21 Building a Culvert 22 Building a Bridge Abutment 22 Rock Drill 23 A Construction and Boarding Train 24 Bergen Tunnels, Hoboken, N. J. 25 Beginning a Tunnel 26 Old Burr Wooden Bridge 28 Kinzua Viaduct; Erie Railway 30 Kinzua Viaduct 31 View of Thomas Pope's Proposed Cantilever (1810) 34 Pope's Cantilever in Process of Erection 35 General View of the Poughkeepsie Bridge 36 Erection of a Cantilever 37 Spiking the Track 38 Track Laying 41 Temporary Railway Crossing the St. Lawrence on the Ice 44 View Down the Blue from Rocky Point, Denver, South Park and Pacific Railroad; showing successive tiers of railway 49 Denver and Rio Grande Railway Entering the Portals of the Grand River Cañon, Colorado 54 The Kentucky River Cantilever, on the Cincinnati Southern Railway 55 Truss over Ravine, and Tunnel, Oroya Railroad, Peru 56 The Nochistongo Cut, Mexican Central Railway 57 The Mount Washington Rack Railroad 58 Trestle on Portland and Ogdensburg Railway, Crawford Notch, White Mountains 58 A Series of Tunnels 59 Tunnel at the Foot of Mount St. Stephen, on the Canadian Pacific 60 Peña de Mora on the La Guayra and Carácas Railway, Venezuela 61 Perspective View of St. Gothard Spiral Tunnels, in the Alps 62 Plan of St. Gothard Spiral Tunnels 63 Profile of the Same 63 Portal of a Finished Tunnel; showing Cameron's Cone, Colorado 64 Railway Pass at Rocky Point in the Rocky Mountains 67 Bridge Pier Founded on Piles 68 Pneumatic Caisson 70 Transverse Section of Pneumatic Caisson 71 Pier of Hawkesbury Bridge, Australia 75 Foundation Crib of the Poughkeepsie Bridge 76 Transverse Section of the Same 76 Granite Arched Approach to Harlem River Bridge in Process of Construction 77 The Old Portage Viaduct, Erie Railway, N. Y. 78 The New Portage Viaduct 79 The Britannia Tubular Bridge over the Menai Straits, North Wales 80 Old Stone Towers of the Niagara Suspension Bridge 82 The New Iron Towers of the Same 82 Truss Bridge of the Northern Pacific Railway over the Missouri River at Bismarck, Dak.—Testing the Central Span 87 Curved Viaduct, Georgetown, Col.; the Union Pacific Crossing its own Line 88 The Niagara Cantilever Bridge in Progress 90 The Niagara Cantilever Bridge Completed 91 The Lachine Bridge, on the Canadian Pacific Railway, near Montreal, Canada 92 The 510-feet Span Steel Arches of the New Harlem River Bridge, New York, during Construction 97 [xv] [xvi] London Underground Railway Station 98 Conestoga Wagon and Team 101 Baltimore & Ohio Railroad, 1830–35 101 Boston & Worcester Railroad, 1835 102 Horatio Allen 103 Peter Cooper's Locomotive, 1830 104 "South Carolina," 1831, and Plan of its Running Gear 105 The "De Witt Clinton," 1831 105 "Grasshopper" Locomotive 106 The "Planet" 107 John B. Jervis's Locomotive, 1831, and Plan of its Running Gear 108 Campbell's Locomotive 109 Locomotive for Suburban Traffic 110 Locomotive for Street Railway 110 Four-wheeled Switching Locomotive 113 Driving Wheels, Frames, Spurs, etc., of American Locomotive 114 Longitudinal Section of a Locomotive Boiler 115 Transverse Section 115 Rudimentary Injector 116 Injector Used on Locomotives 117 Sections of a Locomotive Cylinder 118 Eccentric 118 Eccentric and Strap 118 Valve Gear 119 Turning Locomotive Tires 121 Six-wheeled Switching Locomotive 122 Mogul Locomotive 123 Ten-wheeled Passenger Locomotive 123 Consolidation Locomotive (unfinished) 124 Consolidation Locomotive 124 Decapod Locomotive 125 "Forney" Tank Locomotive 126 "Hudson" Tank Locomotive 127 Camden & Amboy Locomotive, 1848 129 Cab End of a Locomotive and its Attachments 133 Interior of Erecting Shop, showing Locomotive Lifted by Travelling Crane 137 Forging a Locomotive Frame 138 Mohawk & Hudson Car, 1831 139 Early Car 139 Early Car on the Baltimore & Ohio Railroad 140 Early American Car, 1834 140 Old Car for Carrying Flour on the Baltimore & Ohio Railroad 141 Old Car for Carrying Firewood on the Baltimore & Ohio Railroad 141 Old Car on the Quincy Granite Railroad 141 Janney Car Coupler, showing the Process of Coupling 142 Mould and Flask in which Wheels are Cast 143 Cast-iron Car Wheels 144 Section of the Tread and Flange of a Car Wheel 145 Allen Paper Car Wheel 145 Modern Passenger-car and Frame 147 Snow-plough at Work 154 A Type of Snow-plough 155 A Rotary Steam Snow-shovel in Operation 156 Railway-crossing Gate 157 Signal to Stop 162 Signal to Move Ahead 162 Signal to Move Back 163 Signal that the Train has Parted 163 Entrance Gates at a Large Station 167 Central Switch and Signal Tower 168 Interior of a Switch-tower, showing the Operation of Interlocking Switches 171 Stephenson's Steam Driver-brake, patented 1833 192 Driver-brake on Modern Locomotive 192 English Screw-brake, on the Birmingham and Gloucester Road, about 1840 193 English Foot-brake on the Truck of a Great Western Coach, about 1840 193 Plan and Elevation of Air-brake Apparatus 196 Dwarf Semaphores and Split Switch 202 Semaphore Signal with Indicators 203 [xvii] [xviii] Section of Saxby & Farmer Interlocking Machine 204 Diagram of a Double-track Junction with Interlocked Switches and Signals 205 Split Switches with Facing-point Locks and Detector-bars 206 Derailing Switch 207 Torpedo Placer 213 Old Signal Tower on the Philadelphia & Reading, at Phœnixville 214 Crossing Gates worked by Mechanical Connection from the Cabin 217 Some Results of a Butting Collision—Baggage and Passenger Cars Telescoped 218 Wreck at a Bridge 219 New South Norwalk Drawbridge. Rails held by Safety Bolts 220 Engines Wrecked during the Great Wabash Strike 222 Link-and-pin Coupler 224 Janney Automatic Coupler applied to a Freight Car 224 Signals at Night 225 Stockton & Darlington Engine and Car 229 Mohawk & Hudson Train 231 English Railway Carriage, Midland Road. First and Third Class and Luggage Compartments 232 One of the Earliest Passenger Cars Built in this Country; used on the Western Railroad of Massachusetts (now the Boston & Albany) 233 Bogie Truck 233 Rail and Coach Travel in the White Mountains 234 Old Time Table, 1843 235 Old Boston & Worcester Railway Ticket (about 1837) 236 Obverse and Reverse of a Ticket used in 1838, on the New York & Harlem Railroad 236 The "Pioneer." First Complete Pullman Sleeping-car 240 A Pullman Porter 241 Pullman Parlor Car 243 Wagner Parlor Car 244 Dining-car (Chicago, Burlington & Quincy Railroad) 245 End View of a Vestibuled Car 249 Pullman Sleeper on a Vestibuled Train 250 Immigrant Sleeping-car (Canadian Pacific Railway) 251 View of Pullman, Ill. 252 Railway Station at York, England, built on a Curve 257 Outside the Grand Central Station, New York 258 Boston Passenger Station, Providence Division, Old Colony Railroad 259 A Page from the Car Accountant's Book 277 Freight Pier, North River, New York 280 Hay Storage Warehouses, New York Central & Hudson River Railroad, West Thirty-third Street, New York 282 "Dummy" Train and Boy on Hudson Street, New York 287 Red Line Freight-car Mark 288 Star Union Freight-car Mark 288 Coal Car, Central Railroad of New Jersey 289 Refrigerator-car Mark 289 Unloading a Train of Truck-wagons, Long Island Railroad 290 Floating Cars, New York Harbor 295 Postal Progress, 1776–1876 313 The Pony Express—The Relay 314 The Overland Mail Coach—A Star Route 315 Mail Carrying in the Country 316 Loading for the Fast Mail, at the General Post-Office, New York 324 At the Last Moment 326 Pouching the Mail in the Postal Car 329 A Very Difficult Address—known as a "Sticker." 331 Distributing the Mail by States and Routes 332 Pouching Newspapers for California—in Car No. 5 335 Catching the Pouch from the Crane 339 George Stephenson 345 J. Edgar Thomson 349 Thomas A. Scott 350 Cornelius Vanderbilt 352 John W. Garrett 355 Albert Fink 366 Charles Francis Adams 367 Thomas M. Cooley 369 "Dancing on the Carpet" 386 Trainman and Tramps 387 Braking in Hard Weather 389 [xix] Flagging in Winter 391 Coupling 392 The Pleasant Part of a Brakeman's Life 395 At the Spring 397 Just Time to Jump 403 Timely Warning 407 The Passenger Conductor 409 Station Gardening 416 In the Yard at Night 419 A Track-walker on a Stormy Night 421 A Crossing Flagman 423 A Little Relaxation 424 MAPS. Mileage compared with Area 429 Railways, 1830, 1840, 1850, and 1860 430 Railways, 1870 431 Railways, 1880 432 Railways, 1889 433 Five Railway Systems 434, 435 CHARTS. Principal Railway Countries 425 Mileage to Area in New Jersey 426 Total Mileage and Increase, 1830–1888 429 Mileage by States, 1870 431 Mileage by States, 1880 432 Mileage by States, 1888 433 Largest Receipts, 1888 435 Largest Net Results, 1888 435 Freight Rates of Thirteen Trunk Lines, 1870–1888 436 Wheat Rates, by Water and by Rail, 1870–1888 438 The Freight Haul, 1882–1888 439 East-bound and West-bound Freight, 1877–1888 439 Freight Profits, 1870–1888 440 Passenger Rates, 1870–1888 441 Passenger Travel, 1882–1888 442 Passenger Profits, 1870–1888 442 Average Dividends, 1876–1888 443 Net Earnings and Mileage Built, 1876–1888 444 Increase of Population, Mileage, and Freight Traffic, 1870–1888 446 INTRODUCTION. By THOMAS M. COOLEY. The railroads of the United States, now aggregating a hundred and fifty thousand miles and having several hundred different managements, are frequently spoken of comprehensively as the railroad system of the country, as though they constituted a unity in fact, and might be regarded and dealt with as an entirety, by their patrons and by the public authorities, whenever the conveniences they are expected to supply, or the conduct of managers and agents, come in question. So far, however, is this from being the case, that it would be impossible to name any other industrial interest where the diversities are so obvious and the want of unity so conspicuous and so important. The diversities date from the very origin of the roads; they have not come into existence under the same laws nor subject to the same control. It was accepted as an undoubted truth in constitutional law from the first that the authority for the construction of railroads within a State must come from the State itself, which alone could empower the promoters to appropriate lands by adversary proceedings for the purpose. The grant of corporate power must also come from the State, or, at least, have State recognition and sanction; and where the proposed road was to cross a State boundary, the necessary corporate authority must be given [xx] [xxi] [xxii] by every State through or into which the road was to run. It was conceded that the delegated powers of the General Government did not comprehend the granting of charters for the construction of these roads within the States, and even in the Territories charters were granted by the local legislatures. The case of the transcontinental roads was clearly exceptional; they were to be constructed in large part over the public domain, and subsidies were to be granted by Congress for the purpose. They were also, in part at least, to be constructed for governmental reasons as national agencies; and invoking State authority for the purpose seemed to be as inconsistent as it would be inadequate. But, though these were exceptional cases, the magnitude and importance of the Pacific roads are so immense that the agency of the General Government in making provision for this method of transportation must always have prominence in railroad history and railroad statistics. Not only have the roads been diverse in origin, but the corporations which have constructed them have differed very greatly in respect to their powers and rights, and also to the obligations imposed by law upon them. The early grants of power were charter-contracts, freely given, with very liberal provisions; the public being more anxious that they be accepted and acted upon than distrustful of their abuse afterward. Many of them were not subject to alteration or repeal, except with the consent of the corporators; and some of them contained provisions intended to exclude or limit competition, so that, within a limited territory, something in the nature of a monopoly in transportation would be created. The later grants give evidence of popular apprehension of corporate abuses; the legislature reserves a control over them, and the right to multiply railroads indefinitely is made as free as possible, under the supposition that in this multiplication is to be found the best protection against any one of them abusing its powers. In very many cases the motive to the building of a new road has been antagonism to one already in existence, and municipalities have voted subsidies to the one in the hope that, when constructed, it would draw business away from the other. The anomaly has thus been witnessed of distrust of corporate power being the motive for increasing it; and the multiplication of roads has gone on, without any general supervision or any previous determination by competent public authority that they were needed, until the increase has quite outrun in some sections any proper demand for their facilities. Roads thus brought into existence, without system and under diverse managements, it was soon seen were capable of being so operated that the antagonism of managers, instead of finding expression in legitimate competition, would be given to the sort of strife that can only be properly characterized by calling it, as it commonly is called, a war. From such a war the public inevitably suffers. The best service upon the roads is only performed when they are operated as if they constituted in fact parts of one harmonious system; the rates being made by agreement, and traffic exchanged with as little disturbance as possible, and without abrupt break at the terminals. But when every management might act independently, it sometimes happened that a company made its method of doing business an impediment instead of a help to the business done over other roads, recognizing no public duty which should preclude its doing so, provided a gain to itself, however indirect or illegitimate, was probable. Many consolidations of roads have had for their motive the getting rid of this power to do mischief on the part of roads absorbed. In nothing is the want of unity so distinctly and mischievously obvious as in the power of each corporation to make rates independently. It may not only make its own local rates at discretion, but it may join or refuse to join with others in making through rates; so that an inconsiderable and otherwise insignificant road may be capable of being so used as to throw rates for a large section of the country into confusion, and to render the making of profit by other roads impossible. It is frequently said in railroad circles that roads are sometimes constructed for no other reason than because, through this power of mischief, it will be possible to levy contributions upon others, or to compel others, in self- protection, to buy them up at extravagant prices. Cases are named in which this sort of scheming is supposed to have succeeded, and others in which it is now being tried. Evils springing from the diversities mentioned have been cured, or greatly mitigated, by such devices as the formation of fast-freight lines to operate over many roads; by allowing express companies to come upon the roads with semi-independence in the transportation of articles, where, for special reasons, the public is content to pay an extra price for extra care or speed; and by arrangements with sleeping-car companies for special accommodations in luxurious cars to those desiring them. These collateral arrangements, however, have not been wholly beneficial; and had all the roads been constructed as parts of one system and under one management, some of them would neither have been necessary nor defensible. They exist now, however, with more or less reason for their existence; and they tend to increase the diversities in railroad work. The want of unity which has been pointed out tended to breed abuses specially injurious to the public, and governmental regulation was entered upon for their correction. Naturally the first attempts in this direction were made by separate States, each undertaking to regulate for itself the transportation within [xxiii] [xxiv] [xxv] its own limits. Such regulation would have been perfectly logical, and perhaps effectual, had the roads within each State formed a system by themselves; but when State boundaries had very little importance, either to the roads themselves or to the traffic done over them, unless made important by restrictive and obstructive legislation, the regulation by any State must necessarily be fragmentary and imperfect, and diverse regulation in different States might be harmful rather than beneficial. It must be said for State regulation that it has in general been exercised in a prudent and conservative way, but it is liable to be influenced by a sensitive and excitable public opinion; and as nothing is more common than to find gross abuses in the matter of railroad transportation selfishly defended in localities, and even in considerable sections, which are supposed to receive benefits from them, it would not be strange if the like selfishness should sometimes succeed in influencing the exercise of power by one State in a manner that a neighboring State would regard as unfriendly and injurious. The Federal Government recently undertook the work of regulation, and in doing so accepted the view upon which the States had acted, and so worded its statute that the transportation which does not cross State lines is supposed to be excluded. The United States thus undertakes to regulate interstate commerce by rail, and the States regulate, or may regulate, that which is not interstate. It was perhaps overlooked at first that, inasmuch as Government control may embrace the making of classifications, prescribing safety and other appliances, and naming rates, any considerable regulation of State traffic and interstate traffic separately must necessarily to some extent cause interference. The two classes of traffic flow on together over the same lines in the same vehicles under the management of the same agencies, with little or no distinction based on State lines; the rates and the management influenced by considerations which necessarily are of general force, so that separate regulation may without much extravagance be compared to an attempt in the case of one of our great rivers to regulate the flow of the waters in general, but without, in doing so, interfering with an independent regulation of such portion thereof as may have come from the springs and streams of some particular section. This is one of many reasons for looking upon all existing legislation as merely tentative. No doubt the time will come when the railroads of the country will constitute, as they do not now, a system. There are those who think this may, sufficiently for practical purposes, be accomplished by the legalization of some scheme of pooling; but this is a crude device, against which there is an existing prejudice not easily to be removed. Others look for unity through gradual consolidations, the tendency to which is manifest, or through something in the nature of a trust, or by means of more comprehensive and stringent national control. Beyond all these is not infrequently suggested a Government ownership. Of the theories that might be advanced in this direction, or the arguments in their support, nothing further will be said here; the immediate purpose being accomplished when it is shown how misleading may be the term system, when applied to the railroads of the country as an aggregate, as now owned, managed, and controlled. Every man in the land is interested daily and constantly in railroads and the transportation of persons and property over them. The price of whatever he eats, or wears, or uses, the cost and comfort of travel, the speed and convenience with which he shall receive his mail and the current intelligence of the day, and even the intimacy and extent of his social relations, are all largely affected thereby. The business employs great numbers of persons, and the wages paid them affect largely the wages paid in other lines of occupation. The management of the business in some of its departments is attended by serious dangers, and thousands annually lose their lives in the service. Other thousands annually are either killed or injured in being transported; the aggregate being somewhat startling, though unquestionably this method of travel is safer than any other. The ingenuity which has been expended in devices to make the transportation rapid, cheap, and safe may well be characterized as marvellous, and some feats in railroad engineering are the wonder of the world. With all these facts and many others to create a public interest in the general subject, the editor of Scribner's Magazine, some little time ago, applied to writers of well-known ability and competency to prepare papers for publication therein upon the various topics of principal interest in the life and use of railroads, beginning with the construction, and embracing the salient facts of management and service. He was successful in securing a series of papers of high value, the appearance of which has been welcomed from month to month, beginning with June, 1888, with constant and increasing interest. These papers have a permanent value; and, in obedience to a demand for their separate publication in convenient form for frequent reference, the publishers now reproduce them with expansions and additions. A reference to the several titles will convince anyone at all familiar with the general subject that the particular topic is treated in every instance by an expert, entitled as such to speak with authority. [xxvi] [xxvii] [xxviii] First Locomotive. THE BUILDING OF A RAILWAY. By THOMAS CURTIS CLARKE. Roman Tramways of Stone—First Use of Iron Rails—The Modern Railway created by Stephenson's "Rocket" in 1830—Early American Locomotives—Key to the Evolution of the American Railway—Invention of the Swivelling Truck, Equalizing Beams, and the Switchback —Locating a Road—Work of the Surveying Party—Making the Road-bed—How Tunnels are Avoided—More than Three Thousand Bridges in the United States—Old Wooden Structures—The Howe Truss—The Use of Iron—Viaducts of Steel—The American System of Laying Bridge Foundations under Water—Origin of the Cantilever—Laying the Track—How it is Kept in Repair—Premiums for Section Bosses—Number of Railway Employees in the United States—Rapid Railway Construction—Radical Changes which the Railway will Effect. he world of to-day differs from that of Napoleon Bonaparte more than his world differed from that of Julius Cæsar; and this change has chiefly been made by railways. Railways have been known since the days of the Romans. Their tracks were made of two lines of cut stones. Iron rails took their place about one hundred and fifty years ago, when the use of that metal became extended. These roads were called tram-roads, and were used to carry coal from the mines to the places of shipment. They were few in number and attracted little attention. The modern railway was created by the Stephensons in 1830, when they built the locomotive "Rocket." The development of the railway since is due to the development of the locomotive. Civil engineering has done much, but mechanical engineering has done more. The invention of the steam-engine by James Watt, in 1773, attracted the attention of advanced thinkers to a possible steam locomotive. Erasmus Darwin, in a poem published in 1781, made this remarkable prediction: "Soon shall thy arm, unconquered steam! afar Drag the slow barge, or drive the rapid car." The first locomotive of which we have any certain record was invented, and put in operation on a model circular railway in London, in 1804, by Richard Trevithick, an erratic genius, who invented many things but perfected few. His locomotive could not make steam, and therefore could neither go fast nor draw a heavy load. This was the fault of all its successors, until the competitive trial of locomotives on the Liverpool and Manchester Railway, in 1829. The Stephensons, father and son, had invented the steam blast, which, by constantly blowing the fire, enabled the "Rocket," with its tubular boiler, to make steam enough to draw ten passenger cars, at the rate of thirty-five miles an hour. Then was born the modern giant, and so recent is the date of his birth that one of the unsuccessful competitors at that memorable trial, Captain John Ericsson, was until the present year (1889) living and actively working in New York. Another engineer, Horatio Allen, who drove the first locomotive on the first trip ever made in the United States, in 1831, still lives, a hale and hearty old man, near New York. The earlier locomotives of this country, modelled after the "Rocket," weighed five or six tons, and could draw, on a level, about 40 tons. After the American improvements, which we shall describe, were made, our engines weighed 25 tons, and could draw, on a level, some sixty loaded freight cars, weighing 1,200 tons. This was a wonderful advance, but now we have the "Consolidation" locomotive, weighing 50 tons, and able to draw, on a level, a little over 2,400 tons. And this is not the end. Still heavier and more powerful engines are being designed and built, but the limit of the strength of the track, according to its present forms, has nearly been reached. It is very certain we have not reached the limit of the size and power of engines, or the strength of the track that can be devised. After the success of the "Rocket," and of the Liverpool and Manchester Railway, the authority of George Stephenson and his son Robert became absolute and unquestioned upon all subjects of railway engineering. Their locomotives had very little side play to their wheels, and could not go around sharp curves. They accordingly preferred to make their lines as straight as possible, and were willing to spend vast sums to get easy grades. Their lines were taken as models and imitated by other engineers. All lines in England were made with easy grades and gentle curves. Monumental bridges, lofty stone viaducts, and deep cuts or tunnels at every hill marked this stage of railway construction in England, which was imitated on the European lines. Locomotive of To-day. As it was with the railway, so it was with the locomotive. The Stephenson type, once fixed, has remained unchanged (in Europe), except in detail, to the present day. European locomotives have increased in weight and power, and in perfection of material and workmanship, but the general features are those of the locomotives built by the great firm of George Stephenson & Son, before 1840. [Pg 1] [2] [3]