The Project Gutenberg EBook of The American Encyclopedia of History, Biography and Travel, by Thomas H. Prescott This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. Title: The American Encyclopedia of History, Biography and Travel Comprising Ancient and Modern History: the Biography of Eminent Men of Europe and America, and the Lives of Distinguished Travelers. Author: Thomas H. Prescott Release Date: November 28, 2020 [EBook #63912] Language: English Character set encoding: UTF-8 *** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK AMERICAN ENCYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY *** Produced by Carol Brown, Richard Hulse and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images generously made available by The Internet Archive) WASHINGTON’S HOUSE, MOUNT VERNON WASHINGTON’S HOUSE, MOUNT VERNON. the AMERICAN ENCYCLOPEDIA of HISTORY, BIOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL, comprising ANCIENT AND MODERN HISTORY: the BIOGRAPHY OF EMINENT MEN OF EUROPE AND AMERICA, and the LIVES OF DISTINGUISHED TRAVELERS. Illustrated with over 100 Engravings. BY THOMAS H. PRESCOTT, A. M. C O LUMBUS : published and sold exclusively by subscription, BY J . & H. MI LLER. 1857. Entered According to Act of Congress, in the Year 1855, by the OHIO STATE JOURNAL COMPANY, In the Clerk’s Office of the District Court of the United States, for the Southern District of Ohio. Printed by Osgood and Pearce. Bound by H. C Behmer. columbus, ohio. PREFACE. One of the most useful directions for facilitating the study of history, is to begin with authors who present a compendium, or general view of the whole subject of history, and, afterwards, to apply to the study of any particular history with which a more thorough acquaintance is desired. The Historical Department of this work has been compiled with a view to furnishing such a compendium. It covers the whole ground of Ancient History, including China, India, Egypt, Arabia, Syria, the Phœnicians, Jews, Assyrians, Babylonians, Lydians, Modes and Persians, together with Greece and Rome, down through the dark ages to the dawn of modern civilization. It also embraces the history of the leading nations of modern Europe, and of the United States of America. Wisdom is the great end of history. It is designed to supply the want of experience; and though it does not enforce its instructions with the same authority, yet it furnishes a greater variety of lessons than it is possible for experience to afford in the longest life. Its object is to enlarge our views of the human character, and to enable us to form a more correct judgment of human affairs. It must not, therefore, be a tale, calculated merely to please and addressed to the fancy. Gravity and dignity are essential characteristics of history. Robertson and Bancroft may be named as model historians in these particulars. No light ornaments should be employed—no flippancy of style, and no quaintness of wit; but the writer should sustain the character of a wise man, writing for the instruction of posterity; one who has studied to inform himself well, who has pondered his subject with care, and addresses himself to our judgment rather than to our imagination. At the same time, historical writing is by no means inconsistent with ornamented and spirited narration, as witness Macaulay’s popular History of England. On the contrary, it admits of much high ornament and elegance; but the ornaments must be consistent with dignity. Industry is, also, a very essential quality in an accurate historian. As history is conversant with great and memorable actions, a historian should always keep posterity in view, and relate nothing but what may be of some account to future ages. Those who descend to trivial matters, beneath the dignity of history, should be deemed journalists rather than historians. As it is the province of a historian to acquaint us with facts, he should give a narration or description not only of the facts, or actions themselves, but likewise of such things as are necessarily connected with them; such as the characters of persons, the circumstances of time and place, the views and designs of the principal actors, and the issue and event of the actions which he describes. The drawing of characters is one of the most splendid, as it is one of the most difficult, ornaments of historical composition; for characters are generally considered as professed exhibitions of fine writing; and a historian who seeks to shine in them, is often in danger of carrying refinement to excess, from a desire of appearing very profound and penetrating. Among the improvements that have of late years been introduced into historical composition, is the attention that is now given to laws, customs, commerce, religion, literature, and every thing else that tends to exhibit the genius and spirit of nations. Historians are now expected to exhibit manners, as well as facts and events. Voltaire was the first to introduce this improvement, and Allison, Macaulay, and others, have adopted it. The first and lowest use of history is, that it agreeably amuses the imagination, and interests the passions; and in this view of it, it far surpasses all works of fiction, which require a variety of embellishments to excite and interest the passions, while the mere thought that we are listening to the voice of truth, serves to keep the attention awake through many dry and ill-digested narrations of facts. The next and higher use of history is, to improve the understanding and strengthen the judgment, and thus to fit us for entering upon the duties of life with advantage. It presents us with the same objects which occur to us in the business of life, and affords similar exercise to our thoughts; so that it may be called anticipated experience. It is, therefore, of great importance, not only to the advancement of political knowledge, but to that of knowledge in general; because the most exalted understanding is merely a power of drawing conclusions and forming maxims of conduct from known facts and experiments, of which necessary materials of knowledge the mind itself is wholly barren, and with which it must be furnished by experience. By improving the understanding history frees the mind from many foolish prejudices that tend to mislead it. Such are those prejudices of a national kind, that have induced an unreasonable partiality for our own country, merely as our own country, and as unreasonable a repugnance to foreign nations and foreign religions, which nothing but enlarged views resulting from history can cure. It likewise tends to remove those prejudices that may have been entertained in favor of ancient or modern times, by giving a just view of the advantages and disadvantages of mankind in all ages. To a citizen of the United States, one of the great advantages resulting from the study of history is, that so far from producing an indifference to his own country, it disposes him to be satisfied with his own situation, and renders him, from rational conviction, and not from blind prejudice, a more zealous friend to the interests of his country, and to its free institutions. It is from history, chiefly, that improvements are made in the science of government; and this science is one of primary importance. Another advantage is, that it tends to strengthen sentiments of virtue, by displaying the motives and actions of truly great men, and those of a contrary character,—​thus inspiring a taste for real greatness and solid glory. The second department of our work has been devoted to Biography,—a species of history more entertaining, and in many respects equally useful, with general history. It represents great men more distinctly, unincumbered with a crowd of other actors, and, descending into the detail of their actions and character, their virtues and failings, gives more insight into human nature, and leads to a more intimate acquaintance with particular persons, than general history allows. A writer of biography may descend with propriety to minute circumstances and familiar incidents. He is expected to give the private as well as the public life of those whose actions he records; and it is from private life, from familiar, domestic and seemingly trivial occurrences, that we often derive the most accurate knowledge of the real character. To those who have exposed their lives, or employed their time and labor, for the service of their fellow men, it seems but a just debt, that their memories should be perpetuated after them, and that posterity should be made acquainted with their benefactors. To a volume of biography may be applied the language of a pagan poet:— “Here patriots live, who for their country’s good, In fighting fields were prodigal of blood; Priests of unblemished lives here make abode, And poets worthy their inspiring god; And searching wits of more mechanic parts, Who graced their age with new invented arts; Those who to worth their bounty did extend, And those who knew that bounty to commend: The heads of these with holy fillets bound, And all their temples are with garlands crowned.” In the lives of public persons, their public characters are principally, but not solely, to be regarded. The world is inquisitive to know the conduct of its great men as well in private as in public; and both may be of service, considering the influence of their examples. In preparing this department of our work we have aimed to introduce variety,—​selecting representative men from all the various pursuits of life. The third department of our work has been designated as the Department of Travel. It embraces the principal voyages of discovery and the lives of great navigators and travelers, since the days of Columbus and Vasco de Gama. In the history of scientific expeditions, the five following divisions may be made: 1. The earliest age of the Phœnicians down to Herodotus, 500 years before Christ. The Phœnicians undertook the first voyages of discovery for commercial purposes, or to found colonies. 2. The travels of the Greeks and the military expeditions of the Romans, from 500 B. C. to 400 A. D. The Greeks made journeys to enlarge the territories of science. The armies of Rome, during this period, supplied an extensive knowledge of a part of Asia, Egypt, the northern part of Africa, and Europe to South Britain. 3. The expeditions of the Germans and Normans until 900 A. D. The Normans discovered the Faroes, Iceland and Greenland. 4. Besides the commercial and military voyages of the Arabs and Mongols, the travels of the Christian Missionaries, and other Europeans, down to 1400, furnished much valuable information. 5. The fifth period, from the year 1400 to the present time, is the period particularly embraced in this work. During this time, North and South America, a portion of Asia, and the interior of Africa, have been explored, and the adventurous voyagers in the Arctic and Antarctic seas, have pushed their researches to within twelve degrees of the poles. Sir J. Ross reached the south latitude of 78 deg. 4 min. in the year 1841. Such are the results of the labors of four centuries. The knowledge has been slowly gathered, but it will remain a lasting testimony to the triumphs of intellect. It is but recently that human enterprise has penetrated many of the secrets of the Antarctic regions,—that realm of mighty contrasts,—and it will doubtless pursue the investigation. ‘Meantime the wintry solitudes of the far south will be undisturbed by the presence of man; the penguin and the seal will still haunt the desolate shores; the shriek of the petrel and the scream of the albatross will mingle with the dash and roar of continual storms, and the crash of wave-beaten ice; the towering volcano will shoot aloft its columns of fire high into the gelid air; the hills of snow and ice will grow and spread; frost and flame will do their work; till, in the wondrous cycle of terrestrial change, the polar lands shall again share in the abundance and beauty which now overspread the sun-gladdened zones.’ TABLE OF CONTENTS. DEPARTMENT OF HISTORY. ANCIENT HISTORY. Ethiopian History 18–20 Mongolian History.—​The Chinese 20–26 Caucasian History.—Ancient India—Eastern Nations—The Egyptians—Arabians— Syria—The Phœnicians—Palestine—The Jews—The Assyrians and Babylonians—The Medes and Persians—​States of Asia Minor—​The Lydians—​The Persian Empire 26–53 Grecian History.—Early History and Mythology—Religious Rites—Authentic History —Sparta—Lycurgus—Athens—Persian Invasion—Pericles—Alcibiades—Decline of Athenian Independence—​Alexander the Great—​Concluding Period 53–78 Roman History.—The Latins—The Kings—The Commonwealth—Struggle between the Patricians and Plebeians—Invasion of the Gauls—The Samnite Wars—The Punic Wars—The Revolutions of the Gracchi—Social Wars—Marius and Sulla—Pompey, Cicero, Cataline, Cæsar—Gallic Wars—Extinction of the Commonwealth—Civil Wars— Augustus—Dissemination of Christianity—Division of the Empire—Downfall of the Western Empire 78–112 MIDDLE AGES. —The Eastern Empire—Constantine—Julian the Apostate—Theodosius the Great— Justinian; his Code—Arabia—Mohammed—Empire of the Saracens—The Feudal System—Charlemagne—The New Western Empire—France—The German Empire— Italy—Spain—General state of Europe—The Crusades—Chivalry—Rise of new Powers —Wm. Tell—The Italian Republics—Commerce—The Turks—Fall of Constantinople— Rise of Civil Freedom 112–145 MODERN HISTORY. Great Britain and Ireland.—Conquest by the Romans; by the Saxons; by the Normans —Early Norman Kings—William the Conqueror—Henry—Richard Cœur de Lion—John —Magna Charta—Origin of Parliament—Edwards—Conquest of Scotland—Richard II—House of Lancaster—House of York—House of Tudor—Henry VIII—​The Reformation—Edward VI—Queen Mary; Elizabeth—Mary, Queen of Scots—The Stuarts—Gunpowder Plot—Revolution—Irish Rebellion—Oliver Cromwell—Trial and Execution of Charles I—The Commonwealth—Subjugation of Ireland and Scotland—The Protectorate—The Restoration—Charles II—Dutch War—Plague and Fire in London— The Rye House Plot—Death of Charles II—James II—Expedition of Monmouth— Arbitrary Measures of the King—The Revolution—William and Mary—Establishment of the Bank of England—Queen Anne—Union of England and Scotland—Marlborough’s Campaigns—House of Hanover—George I—Rebellion of 1715–16—George II—​ Rebellion of 1745–46—George III—American Stamp Act—American War of Independence—French Revolution—Rebellion in Ireland—Union with Great Britain— War with U. States—George IV—William IV—Queen Victoria—War with Russia— Alliance with France—​Attack on Odessa—​Operations in the Baltic—​The Crimea—​Battle of the Alma—Sebastopol described—Allies opening Trenches—Bombardment— Explosion of French Batteries and Russian Powder Magazine—The Allied Fleet— Cannonade—Battle of Balaklava—The Turks—The Highlanders—The Russian Cavalry —Capt. Nolan—Battle of Inkermann—Morning of the Battle—The Attack—The Zouaves—Chasseurs—Night after the Battle—Council of War—Determination to Winter —​Reinforcements demanded 145–256 History of France.—Clovis, A. D. 486; division of his Empire—The Merovingian Kings—The Carlovingians—Pepin—Charles Martel—Charlemagne; his Empire—Louis —Division of the Empire—Charles—Arnulf—Charles the Simple—Invasion of the Normans—Hugh Capet and his Successors—Philip VI of Valois—Wars with England, 1328–1415—Charles VI—Maid of Orleans—Louis XI—Francis II—France during the War of Religion—Persecution of the Huguenots—Coligni—The Massacre of St. Bartholomew, 1572—​Henry III—​Henry IV—​Edict of Nantes—​The Age of Louis XIV—​ Richelieu and Mazarin—Persecution of the Calvinists—Revocation of the Edict of Nantes, 1685—The Last Days of Absolute Monarchy—Louis XV—Louis XVI—The French Revolution—National Assembly—Mirabeau, Dante, Marat, Robespierre—The 10th of August—Dethronement of the King—National Convention—Trial and Execution of the King—Jacobins and Girondists—Exclusion of the Girondists from the Convention— Execution of the Queen, Madame Elizabeth, and the Duke of Orleans—La Vendee—Fall of Danton and Camille Desmoulins—Overthrow of Robespierre and the Jacobins— Reconstruction of the Government—Napoleon Bonaparte—Italian Campaign— Expedition to Egypt and Syria—Return to France—The First Consulate—Consul for Life —Duke d’Enghein—Napoleon Emperor—Austrian Campaign—Russians—Battle of Austerlitz—Confederation of the Rhine—War with Prussia—Alliance of Prussia and Russia—Victory at Friedland—Peace of Tilsit—Occupation of Portugal—Spain— Annexation of the Roman States and imprisonment of the Pope—New war with Austria— Peace of Vienna—Marriage with Maria Louisa—Russian Campaign—Conflagration of Moscow—Retreat of the French—Alliance of Russia, Prussia, etc.—Congress of Prague —Austria—Battle of Leipsic—Retreat of the French—Invasion of France by the Allies— Abdication of Napoleon—Louis XVIII—Escape of Napoleon from Elba—Defeat at Waterloo—Death at St. Helena—Louis XVIII—​Charles X—Abdication—Louis Philippe —​Revolution—​Louis Napoleon—​War with Russia and alliance with England and Turkey 256–302 History of Spain.—Gothic Monarchy—The Moors—Castile—Henry IV—​Ferdinand and Isabella—Conquest of Grenada—Christopher Columbus—Discovery of America— Charles V—Hernando Cortez—Conquest of Mexico—Francis Pizarro—Conquest of Peru—Ignatius Loyola—Philip II—War with England—Defeat of the Invincible Armada —​Philip III—Banishment of the descendants of the Moors—Philip IV—Accession of the House of Bourbon—Charles III—The Seven Years’ War—Charles IV—​Ferdinand—​ Joseph Bonaparte—Alliance of the Spaniards and English—Return of Ferdinand— Isabella II 302–312 Germany and Austria.—Division of the Empire of Charlemagne, and formation of the German Empire—Succession of Henry the Fowler to the throne of Conrad of Franconia —The Germans build cities—Accession of Hildebrand—Pope Gregory III—​His Excommunication of Henry IV—Strife of Guelphs and Ghibelines—Pope Adrian IV—​ Tancred—Richard III of England—The House of Hapsburg succeeds that of Swabia— Death of Albert—​Charles IV issues the Golden Bull—Council of Constance—Martyrdom of John Huss and Jerome of Prague—Invention of Printing—Luther; the Reformation— Thirty Years’ War—Peace of Westphalia—Insurrection of Hungarians aided by Turks— The War of Succession—Prince Eugene—Maria Theresa—Pragmatic Sanction—Revolt of the Netherlands—Confederation of the Rhine—Congress of Vienna—Hungarian Revolution of 1848 312–326 History of Russia.—Russia rescued from the Tartars by John Basilowitz—Michael Theodorowitz, First of the House of Romanoff, Czar of Muscovy—Reorganization of Russia by Alexis—Reign of Peter the Great—Foundation and embellishment of St. Petersburg—Succession of the Czarina Catherine—Catherine II—Annexation of the Crimea—​Dismemberment of Poland—​Kosciusko—​Suwarrow—​Resignation of Stanislaus —Paul—War against the French Republic—Assassination of Paul—Alexander— Coalition against Napoleon, by Austria and England—Peace of Tilsit—Napoleon declares war against Russia—Smolensko—Burning of Moscow—Constantine—Nicholas— Extirpation of Poland—Siege of Sevastopol by France, England, and Turkey—Death of Nicholas—​Succession of Alexander II 326–334 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. I. Colonial History.—Discoveries of Cabot—The Huguenots—Sir Walter Raleigh—Champlain—Henry Hudson—Virginia—Jamestown—John Smith— Pocahontas—Indian War—Gov. Berkeley—Nathaniel Bacon—New England Colonies—Puritans—Principles of their early Government—Quaker Persecution —Pequod Indian War—King Philip—Royal Governors—Salem Witchcraft— Connecticut—Rhode Island—Dutch Settlement of New Amsterdam—Indian War—Annexation of New Amsterdam to the English Colonies, and change of name to N. York—Lord Baltimore—Civil War—Carolina—Wm. Penn—Indian Treaty—Frame of Government—Oglethorpe—Wesley—Whitfield—Principles and characteristics of the Colonists 334–363 II. Contest of France and England for America.—King William’s War—The French War—The Ohio Company—George Washington—Braddock—Gen. Wolfe—​Rising Colonial prosperity 363–368 III. The Revolution.—Stamp Act—N. Y. Congress—War of publications against Britain—Boston Massacre—Tea Party—Lexington—Declaration of Independence—Franklin, Lafayette, Kosciusko—Trenton—Brandywine— Burgoyne’s Defeat—Alliance of France and America—Baron Steuben— D’Estaing—Stony Point—Arnold—Col. Hayne—Capitulation of Cornwallis— Treaty at Paris—Washington—Paralyzed condition of the Government— Massachusetts Rebellion 1786—Formation of Government by the Constitutional Convention 368–394 IV. Constitutional History.—Federalists and anti-Federalists—Defeat of Harmar and St. Clair—Prohibition of the Slave Trade—Death of Washington—Purchase of Louisiana—​War with Tripoli—​Embargo Acts—​War with England—​Campaign of 1812—American Naval Victories—Perry’s victory on Lake Erie—Gen. Harrison—Treaty at Ghent—Battle of New Orleans—Seminole War—Lafayette —Tariff—U. S. Bank—Nullification—Compromise of 1820—Commercial Bankruptcy—Annexation of Texas—Mexican War—Discovery of Gold in California—​Gadsden Treaty 394–413 BIOGRAPHICAL DEPARTMENT. Hernando Cortez 415 William Penn 441 Benjamin Franklin 467 Peter the Great 475 Count Rumford 498 Nicholas Copernicus 523 Tycho Brahe 526 Galileo 528 Kepler 531 Sir Isaac Newton 533 Huygens 536 Halley 537 Ferguson 539 Sir William Herschel 544 Simon Bolivar 547 Francia, the Dictator 554 Alexander Wilson 562 James Watt 569 John Howard 572 Lord Byron 598 Percy Bysshe Shelley 612 Oliver Goldsmith 615 Edward Gibbon 619 David Hume 623 Alexander Pope 627 John Adams 634 Thomas Jefferson 644 Samuel Adams 649 James Otis 651 Fisher Ames 653 Aaron Burr 655 Alexander Hamilton 657 Patrick Henry 660 John Hancock 664 Ethan Allen 665 Benedict Arnold 667 Horatio Gates 680 Thaddeus Kosciusko 681 Nathaniel Green 685 Frederick William Augustus Steuben 688 Baron de Kalb 689 Richard Montgomery 690 Gilbert Motier Lafayette 691 Israel Putnam 696 Stephen Decatur 698 Isaac Hull 700 Oliver Hazard Perry 702 John Marshall 704 John Paul Jones 706 Andrew Jackson 710 Winfield Scott 713 Zachary Taylor 714 John E. Wool 724 Daniel Webster 726 Henry Clay 732 Levi Woodbury 735 Robert Rantoul 737 Franklin Pierce 740 Samuel Finley Breese Morse 741 M. Daguerre 747 Victor Hugo 749 Omar Pasha 751 Edward Everett 753 Washington Irving 754 William Cullen Bryant 756 George Bancroft 756 William Hickling Prescott 758 Hiram Powers 759 DEPARTMENT OF TRAVEL. Historical Sketch of Naval Architecture 761 Early Maritime Discoveries 774 Christopher Columbus 775 Ferdinand Magellan 800 Sir Francis Drake 802 Henry Hudson 804 Le Maire and Schouten 805 Captain James 806 William Dampier 811 Captain Woodes Rogers 814 John Clipperton 815 Commodore Anson 817 Captain Byron 823 Captain Wallis 829 De Bougainville 832 Captain James Cook 837 Captains Portlock and Dixon 864 Monsieur De La Perouse 870 George Vancouver 891 Perry’s Voyages 896 Sir John Franklin 920 Travels in Africa—​Parke, Denham, Clapperton, Lander and others 927 Samuel Hearne 953 John Lewis Burkhardt 955 James Bruce 958 John Ledyard 966 John Baptist Belzoni 967 George Forster 974 Edward Daniel Clarke 976 Richard Pococke 979 Overland Journey to India 981 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. page. Opium Smuggling 22 Japanese Funeral Procession 23 Aga 30 Japanese Agriculture 31 Terrace of St. Peter’s 126 Gibraltar 127 Marine Arsenal, Constantinople 232 Place of Kossuth’s Imprisonment 233 Castle of Eisenstadt 322 King of Denmark 323 Captain Smith and Pocahontas 336 Providence, R. I. 338 Newport, R. I. 339 New Haven, Conn. 342 Philadelphia, Pa. 343 Halifax, N. S. 348 Lake George 349 Castle William 354 Castle Garden 355 Wilmington, N. C. 358 Prison, Phila. 359 Fort Putnam 364 Pillar Rock 365 Place des Armes, New Orleans 370 Blackwell Penitentiary 371 Columbus, O. 402 Depot, Cleveland, O. 403 Cincinnati, O. 406 Sandusky City, O. 407 Battle Monument, Baltimore 410 Bombardment of Vera Cruz 411 State House, Wisconsin 414 View on Grand River, Ohio 570 Bridge, Conneaut River, O. 571 Kosciusko’s Monument 683 Paul Jonas 707 Gen. Scott 712 Fort Ancient 716 Milford, near Cincinnati, O. 717 Gen. Wool 725 Daniel Webster 728 Residence of Daniel Webster 729 Henry Clay 733 Hon. Levi Woodbury 734 Birth Place of John Q. Adams 736 Franklin Pierce 738 William R. King 739 Euclid Creek, O. 742 Red Bank 743 Prof. Morse 744 Daguerre 746 Victor Hugo 748 Omar Pasha 752 Disappointed Gold Seekers 760 Gold Seeker’s Grave 760 Naval Architecture, from the tenth to the seventeenth century (17 Engravings) 762–770 City of Panama 812 Panama Gate 813 City of Havana 818 Scene in Havana 819 Adelaide 824 Bathurst, N. S. W. 825 Valparaiso 834 Iron Bridge, Jamaica 835 Sidney, N. S. W. 856 Humboldt 857 California 874 Ranche 875 Post Office 876 River-bed Claim on the Turon 877 Removing Goods 878 Dry Diggings 879 Portraits of Sir John Franklin’s Expedition, (9 Engravings) 922–926 Calcutta 973 Rail Road Bridge 964 Elk Creek 965 East Branch Rocky River 982 West Branch Rocky River 983 AMERICAN ENCYCLOPEDIA. View of St. Louis, Missouri VIEW OF Sᵀ. LOUIS (MISSOURI.) THE AME RI C AN E N C YC L O P E D I A OF HISTORY, BIOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL. DEPARTMENT OF HISTORY. ANCIENT HISTORY. The general consent of mankind points to the region of Central Asia as having been the original seat from which the human race dispersed itself over the globe; and accordingly, it is this region, and especially the western portion of it, which we find to have been the theatre of the earliest recorded transactions. In short, it was in Central Asia that the first large mass of ripened humanity was accumulated—a great central nucleus of human life, so to speak, constantly enlarging, and from which emissaries incessantly streamed out over the globe in all directions. In process of time this great central mass having swollen out till it filled Asia and Africa, broke up into three fragments—thus giving parentage to the three leading varieties into which ethnographers divide the human species—the Caucasian, the Mongolian, and the Ethiopian or Negro—the Caucasians overspreading southern and western Asia; the Mongolians overspreading northern and eastern Asia; and the Ethiopians overspreading Africa. From these three sources streamed forth branches which, intermingling in various proportions, have constituted the various nations of the earth. Differing from each other in physiological characteristics, the three great varieties of the human species have also differed widely in their historical career. The germs of a grand progressive development seem to have been implanted specially in the Caucasian variety, the parent stock of all the great civilized nations of ancient and modern times. History, therefore, concerns itself chiefly with this variety: in the evolution of whose destinies the true thread of human progress is to be found. Ere proceeding, however, to sketch the early development of this highly-endowed variety of our species in the nations of antiquity, a few observations may be offered regarding the other two the Ethiopian and Mongolian—which began the race of life along with the Caucasian, and whose destinies, doubtless, whatever may have been their historical functions hitherto, are involved in some profound and beautiful manner with the bearing of the race as a whole. ETHIOPIAN HISTORY. A German Historian thus sums up all that is known of Ethiopian history—that is, of the part which the great Negro race, inhabiting all Africa with the exception of the north-eastern coasts, performed in the general affairs of mankind in the early ages of the world:—‘On the history of this division of the species two remarks may be made: the one, that a now entirely extinct knowledge of the extension and power of this branch of the human family must have been forced upon even the Greeks by their early poets and historians; the other, that the Ethiopian history is interwoven throughout with that of Egypt. As regards the first remark, it is clear that in the earliest ages this branch of the race must have played an important part, since Meroe (in the present Nubia) is mentioned both by Herodotus (b. c. 408) and Strabo (a. d. 20); by the one as a still-existing, by the other as a formerly-existing seat of royalty, and centre of the Ethiopian religion and civilization.[1] To this Strabo adds, that the race spread from the boundaries of Egypt over the mountains of Atlas, as far as the Gaditanian Straits. Ephorus, too (b. c. 405), seems to have had a very great impression of the Ethiopians, since he names in the east the Indians, in the south the Ethiopians, in the west the Celts, in the north the Scythians, as the most mighty and numerous peoples of the known earth. Already in Strabo’s time, however, their ancient power had been gone for an indefinite period, and the Negro states found themselves, after Meroe had ceased to be a religious capital, almost in the same situation as that in which they still continue. The second remark on the Negro branch of the human race and its history, can only be fully elucidated when the interpretation of the inscriptions on Egyptian monuments shall have been farther advanced. The latest travels into Abyssinia show this much—that at one time the Egyptian religion and civilization extended over the principal seat of the northern Negroes. Single mummies and monumental figures corroborate what Herodotus expressly says, that a great portion of the Egyptians of his time had black skins and woolly hair; hence we infer that the Negro race had combined itself intimately with the Caucasian part of the population. Not these notices only, but the express testimonies also of the Hebrew annals, show Egypt to have contained an abundance of Negroes, and mention a conquering king invading it at the head of a Negro host, and governing it for a considerable time. The nature of the accounts on which we must found does not permit us to give an accurate statement; we remark, however, that the Indians, the Egyptians, and the Babylonians, are not the only peoples which aimed at becoming world-conquerors before the historic age, but that also to the Ethiopian stock warlike kings were not wanting in the early times. The Mongols alone seem to have enjoyed a happy repose within their own seats in the primitive historic times, and those antecedent to them; they appear first very late as conquerors and destroyers in the history of the west. If, indeed, the hero-king of the Ethiopians, Tearcho, were one and the same with the Tirhakah of the book of Kings (2 Kings, xix. 9), then the wonder of those stories would disappear which were handed down by tradition to the Greeks; but even Bochart has combatted this belief, and we cannot reconcile it with the circumstances which are related of both. It remains for us only to observe, by way of summary, that in an age antecedent to the historic, the Ethiopian peoples may have been associated together in a more regular manner than in our own or Grecian and Roman times; and that their distant expeditions may have been so formidable, both to the Europeans as far as the Ægean Sea in the east, and to the dwellers on the Gaditanian Straits (Gibraltar) on the west, that the dim knowledge of the fact was not lost even in late times. In more recent ages we observe here and there an Ethiopian influence, and especially in the Egyptian history; but as concerns the general progress of the human species, the Negro race never acquired any vital importance. The foregoing observations may be summed up in this proposition:—That in the most remote antiquity, Africa was overspread by the Negro variety of the human species; that in those parts of the continent to which the knowledge of the ancient geographers did not extend—namely, all south of Egypt and the Great Desert—the Negro race degenerated, or at least dispersed into tribes, kingdoms, etc., constituting a great savage system within its own torrid abode, similar to that which even now, in the adult age of the world, we are vainly attempting to penetrate; but that on the coasts of the Mediterranean and the Red Sea, the race either preserved its original faculty and intelligence longer, or was so improved by contact and intermixture with its Caucasian neighbors, as to constitute, under the name of the Ethiopians, one of the great ante-historic dynasties of the world; and that this dynasty ebbed and flowed against the Caucasian populations of western Asia and eastern Europe, thus giving rise to mixture of races along the African coasts of the north and east, until at length, leaving these mixed races to act their part awhile, the pure Ethiopian himself retired from historic view into Central Africa, where he lay concealed, till again in modern times he was dragged forth to become the slave of the Caucasian. Thus Negro history hitherto has exhibited a retrogression from a point once occupied, rather than a progress in civilization. Even this fact, however, must somehow be subordinate to a great law of general progress; and it is gratifying to know that, on the coast of Africa, a settlement has recently been formed called Liberia, peopled by liberated negro slaves from North America; and who, bringing with them the Anglo-American civilization, give promise of founding a cultured and prosperous community. MONGOLIAN HISTORY—​THE CHINESE. As from the great central mass of mankind, the first accumulation of life on our planet, there was parted off into Africa a fragment called the Negro variety, so into eastern Asia there was detached, by those causes which we seek in vain to discover, a second huge fragment, to which has been given the name of the Mongolian variety. Overspreading the great plains of Asia, from the Himalehs to the Sea of Okhotsk, this detachment of the human species may be supposed to have crossed into Japan; to have reached the other islands of the Pacific, and either through these, or by the access at Behring’s Straits, to have poured themselves through the great American continent; their peculiarities shading off in their long journey, till the Mongolian was converted into the American Indian. Blumenbach, however, erects the American Indian into a type by himself. Had historians been able to pursue the Negro race into their central African jungles and deserts, they would no doubt have found the general Ethiopic mass breaking up there under the operation of causes connected with climate, soil, food, etc., into vast sections or subdivisions, presenting marked differences from each other; and precisely so was it with the Mongolians. In Central Asia, we find them as Thibetians, Tungusians, Mongols proper; on the eastern coasts, as Mantchous and Chinese; in the adjacent islands, as Japanese, etc.; and nearer the North Pole, as Laplanders, Esquimaux, etc.; all presenting peculiarities of their own. Of these great Mongolian branches circumstances have given a higher degree of development to the Chinese and the Japanese than to the others, which are chiefly nomadic hordes, some under Chinese rule, others independent, roaming over the great pasture lands of Asia, and employed in rearing cattle. There is every reason to believe that the vast population inhabiting that portion of eastern Asia called China, can boast of a longer antiquity of civilization than almost any other nation of the world, a civilization, however, differing essentially in its character from those which have appeared and disappeared among the Caucasians. This, in fact, is to be observed as the grand difference between the history of the Mongolian and that of the Caucasian variety of the human species, that whereas the former presents us with the best product of Mongolian humanity, in the form of one great permanent civilization—​the Chinese—​extending from century to century, one, the same, and solitary, through a period of 3000 or 4000 years; the latter exhibits a succession of civilization—the Chaldean, the Persian, the Grecian, the Roman, the modern European (subdivided into French, English, German, Italian, etc.,)