THEAGE OF THE CRUSADES TheNearEast from the eleventhcenturyto 1517 of A History the Near East General Editor: Professor P M. Holt * The Prophet and the Age ofthe Caliphates: the Islamic Near East from the sixth to the eleventh century Hugh Kennedy * TheAge ofthe Crusades: the Near East from the eleventh century to 1517 R M. Holt The Rise ofthe Ottoman Empire 1300-1574 C. Kafadar The Decline ofthe Ottoman Empire 1574-1792 R. C. Repp and G. Piterberg * The Making ofthe Modern Near East 1792-1923 M. E. Yapp * The Near East since the FirstWorldWar.A History to 1995 Second Edition M. E. Yapp * Medieval Persia 1040-1797 DavidMorgan * Alreadypublished of The Age the Crusades The Near East from the eleventh century to 1517 P. M. Holt ~ ~~o~~~~n~~~up LONDON AND NEWYORK Firstpublished1986byAddisonWesleyLongmanLimited Eighthimpression1997 ' Published2013byRoutledge 2ParkSquare,MiltonPark,Abingdon, OxonOX144RN 711ThirdAvenue,NewYork,NY10017,USA RoutledgeisanimprintoftheTaylor&FrancisGroup,aninformabusiness Copyright©1986,Taylor&Francis. Allrightsreserved.Nopartofthisbookmaybereprintedorreproducedor utilisedinanyformorbyanyelectronic,mechanical,orothermeans,now knownorhereafterinvented,includingphotocopyingandrecording, orinany informationstorageorretrievalsystem,withoutpermissioninwritingfrom thepublishers. Notices Knowledgeandbestpracticeinthisfieldareconstantlychanging.Asnewre searchandexperiencebroadenourunderstanding,changesinresearchmeth ods,professionalpractices,ormedicaltreatmentmaybecomenecessary. Practitionersandresearchersmustalwaysrelyontheirownexperience and knowledgeinevaluatingandusinganyinformation,methods,compounds,or experimentsdescribedherein.Inusingsuchinformationormethodsthey shouldbemindfuloftheirownsafetyandthesafetyofothers,includingpar tiesforwhomtheyhaveaprofessionalresponsibility. Tothefullestextentofthelaw,neitherthePublishernortheauthors, contrib utors,oreditors,assumeanyliabilityforanyinjuryand/ordamagetopersons orpropertyasamatterofproductsliability,negligenceorotherwise, orfrom anyuseoroperationofanymethods,products,instructions,orideascon tainedinthematerialherein. ISBN13:978-0-582-49302-5 (pbk) BritishLibrary Cataloguingin Publication Data Hot,~M. Theageofthe crusades:the NearEastfrom the eleventhcenturyto 1517. - (AHistoryofthe NearEast) 1.Crusades 2.IslamicEmpire- History 750-12583.IslamicEmpire- History 1258-1517 1.TitleII.Series 956'.01 DS38.6 Library ofCongress Cataloguingin PublicationData Holt:P.M.(peter Malcolm) TheAgeofthe Crusades. (AHistoryofthe NearEast) Bibliography: p. Includes index 1.IslamicEmpire- History. 1.Title II.Series DS38.3.H65 1986 909'.097671 84-27801 ISBN o-S82-49303-x ISBN 0-49302-1 (pbk.) Setin 10/12ptVIP Bembo Contents ListofGenealogical Tables Vll ListojMaps VIll Foreword ix Acknowledgements x Note:Names, TitlesandDates Xl Introduction:TheLandsand theirPeoples 1 1 TheNearEast on the Eveofthe FirstCrusade 9 2 TheFirstCrusade1095-1099 16 3 TheFrankishStates and the MuslimResponse1099-1128 23 4 OutremeranditsPeople 31 5 Zangiand NilraI-Din1128-1154 38 6 NiiraI-Dinandthe Rise ofSaladin1154-1174 46 7 TheAscendancyofSaladin1174-1193 53 8 TheLaterAyyubids 1193-1249 60 9 Institutionsfromthe Seljukidsto the Ayyubids 67 10 TheInaugurationofthe MamlukSultanate1249-1260 82 11 TheReignofal-~ahirBaybars1260-1277 90 12 TheEstablishmentofthe KalavunidDynasty1277-1293 99 13 TheReignofal-NasirMuhammad (1) 107 TheUsurpations1293-1310 14 TheReignofal-NasirMuhammad (2) 114 TheAutocracy1310-1341 15 TheLaterKalavunidsandthe CircassianSuccession 1341-1399 121 16 EgyptandNubiato the late FourteenthCentury 130 17 InstitutionsoftheMamlukSultanate 138 -18 DiplomaticandCommercialRelationsofthe Mamluk Sultanate 155 v Contents 19 TheSeljukSultanateofRiimand its Successors 167 20 TheMamlukSultanatein Decline (1) 178 TheSons andHouseholdofBarkuk1399-1461 21 TheMamlukSultanatein Decline(2) 192 TheLaterCircassianMamlukSultans1461-1517 Conclusion:Retrospectand Prospect 203 BibliographicalSurvey 207 Glossary 221 Genealogical Tables 226 Afaps 232 Index 236 VI of List Genealogical Tables 1 TheRoyalHouseofJerusalemto 1192 226 2 TheRoyalHouseofJerusalem, 1192-1291 227 3 TheAyyubidsofEgypt, Damascusand Aleppo 228 4 AI-~a1i1}.Ayyiiband the EarlyMamlukSultans 229 5 TheHouseofKalavun 230 6 TheCircassianMamlukSultans 231 Vll List ofMaps 1 TheWesternFertileCrescent (northernhalf) 232 2 TheWesternFertileCrescent (southernhalf) 233 3 TheNileValleyandRed Sea 234 4 Anatoliaand the NorthernFertileCrescent 235 viii Foreword This volumeis intended to offerthe studentand thegeneral reader an accountofthepoliticalhistoryoftheeasternMediterraneanlandsfrom theeve oftheFirstCrusadein thelateeleventhcenturyto theOttoman conquest of Syria and Egypt in 1516-17. Although much has been writtenonsomeaspectsofthisperiod,notablytheCrusades,for which Europeansourcesareabundant,othershavebeenleftinobscurity;there is, for example, no comprehensivemoderntreatmentin Englishofthe Mamluk sultanate, although this was the great power ofthe eastern Mediterraneanfor twohundredyearsandmore.Itisstilltruetodaythat anygeneralsurvey ofdevelopmentsin thesecenturiesmustbe uneven in its treatment, sometimes because of an actual lack of primary source-materials,andoftenbecauseoftheirregularprogressofresearch and publicationin various parts ofthe field. My hopeis, nevertheless, that this book will serve as an introduction to a fascinating period, relevantin onerespectto thehistoryofmedievalEurope, whoserulers sharedmanyofthepoliticalandadministrativeproblemsoftheirMus lim counterparts, in another to that ofthe modern Near East, whose peoples are the heirs ofthe region's past. Mythanksare particularlydueto myformercolleague,ProfessorV. L. Menage, for his advice on the forms of Mamluk names. For anomalies and errors in this as in other matters, the responsibility is mine. P. M. HOLT Kirtlington November 1984 IX