University of New England DUNE: DigitalUNE Society, Culture and Languages Faculty Society, Culture and Languages Department Publications 6-2012 The Afro-Brazilian Speech Of Calunga: Historical, Sociolinguistic, And Linguistic Considerations Steven Byrd University of New England, [email protected] Follow this and additional works at:http://dune.une.edu/scl_facpubs Part of theAfrican Languages and Societies Commons,Latin American Languages and Societies Commons, and theSpanish and Portuguese Language and Literature Commons Recommended Citation Originally published in The Journal of Pan African Studies, vol.5, no.5, June 2012: http://www.jpanafrican.com/archive_issues/ vol5no5.htm. This Article is brought to you for free and open access by the Society, Culture and Languages Department at DUNE: DigitalUNE. It has been accepted for inclusion in Society, Culture and Languages Faculty Publications by an authorized administrator of DUNE: DigitalUNE. For more information, please [email protected]. The Afro-Brazilian Speech of Calunga: Historical, Sociolinguistic, and Linguistic Considerations by Steven Byrd [email protected] Associate Professor of Spanish and Portuguese Department of Society, Culture, and Language University of New England, Biddeford/Portland, Maine Abstract Calunga is an Afro-Brazilian speech spoken primarily in and around Patrocínio, Minas Gerais, a rural town located in the western region of the state known as the Triângulo Mineiro. In the early 21st century, this Afro-Brazilian speech exists in a moribund state. The present article is an attempt to provide a basic overview regarding some of the historical, sociolinguistic, and linguistic considerations of this Afro-Brazilian speech community, and how it fits into the larger picture of the African legacy in Brazil in terms of language and culture. Introduction João Dornas Filho, a Brazilian historian and sociologist, argues the following about the state of Afro-Brazilian cultural and language studies in 1943: Studies about the Black Brazilian have suffered from the lack of an exact understanding of the language that the imported [Africans] of the traffic spoke, perhaps because today, when interest in these subjects has increased according to their importance, there are almost no more Africans or near descendants of Africans who know the language of their ancestors. And the understanding of this subject is fundamental for a complete analysis [of Afro-Brazilian culture], because language – in its characteristics, by its nature, in its diverse forms – is the key to many problems of folklore, sociology, ethnography and other prisms related to the subject. (Dornas Filho 1943:71, my translation) 101 The Journal of Pan African Studies, vol.5, no.5, June 2012 Indeed, starting in the mid-16th century to the end of the 19th century, millions of Africans were forcibly transported to Brazil. Even though exact numbers are unknown, estimates of 4 to 4.5 million Africans have been suggested by scholars (Bueno 2003:120; Klein 2002:93; Olsen 2003:57). But, given that many were shipped clandestinely to Brazil, the actual numbers could be higher – possibly in the range of 5 to 8 million (Castro 2001:62). Estimates aside, researchers agree that Brazil received more Africans than any other country, accounting for approximately 40% of the entire transatlantic trade (Dodson 2001:119). Such a large influx of persons typically has a lasting influence on the culture; and, in fact, Brazilian music, dance, religion, folklore, art, and cuisine all have African roots or notable African influence. However, as Dornas Filho correctly notes, our understanding of the Africa-Brazil connection in regard to language is rudimentary at best. Studies on Afro-Brazilian language, which span over a century, have mostly attempted to establish the African contribution to Brazilian Portuguese. Bonvini and Petter (1998:79) note that these studies tend to focus on two features: the lexical component of Brazilian Portuguese and the phonological and morphosyntactic characteristics of Brazilian Portuguese vernacular (BPV) through possible creolization, semi-creolization, or decreolization. But African languages and subsequent varieties that have persisted in Brazil have not been the focus of much research. As Bonvini and Petter (1998:74) rightly question: What do we really know about the languages spoken by the Africans in Brazil? According to Castro (2001:71), the answer is close to nothing. And, as Bonvini (2008a:21) asserts, the lack of data regarding African languages in Brazil is rather surprising given that varieties of these languages have survived in various forms, such as liturgical languages (e.g. Candomblé) and cryptolects (e.g. Cupópia of the Cafundó community) into the 21st century. With this in mind, the present article is an attempt to provide a basic overview regarding some of the historical, sociolinguistic, and linguistic considerations of the contemporary Afro- Brazilian speech community of Calunga, and how this particular speech community fits into the larger picture of the African legacy in Brazil in terms of language and culture.1 What is Calunga? Calunga is an Afro-Brazilian speech spoken primarily in and around Patrocínio, Minas Gerais – a rural town of 81,589 inhabitants located near the Serra da Canastra in the Triângulo Mineiro.2 Although the speech has been reported elsewhere in the region and in the nearby state of Goiás, the speakers – known as calungadores – are generally older Afro-Brazilian men numbering perhaps in the hundreds. In the early 21st century, this Afro-Brazilian speech exists in a moribund state. 102 The Journal of Pan African Studies, vol.5, no.5, June 2012 The history and origins of Calunga are largely unknown, but some scholarly attempts have been made to document this speech community. In the 1990s, for example, there were two studies that offered some lexical and anthropological observations: Batinga’s (1994) book, Aspectos de presença do negro no triângulo mineiro/alto paranaíba: Kalunga, which provides a sketchy anthropological and lexical overview of Calunga; and Vogt and Fry (1996) dedicate a part of their book, Cafundó: a África no Brasil, to comparing Calunga to the Afro-Brazilian Cupópia speech spoken in the state of São Paulo. Most recently, Byrd (2006, 2007, 2010a, 2010b, 2012) and Byrd and Bassani Moraes (2007) have published a series of linguistic and sociolinguistic studies on Calunga. Using the terminology of Castro (2001), Calunga may be best categorized in Portuguese as a falar africano, which is perhaps best translated in English as an Afro-Brazilian speech. This Afro-Brazilian speech is primarily a lexical phenomenon with some peculiar grammatical aspects. Clearly, while some of Calunga’s lexicon has terms of African origin – mostly from Kimbundu, Umbundu, and Kikongo (the latter probably to a lesser extent) –, its phonetics/phonology and morphosyntax are on par with the rural, regional Brazilian Portuguese vernacular known as português caipira (‘Caipira Portuguese’). Indeed, the primary language of all Calunga speakers is the regional Caipira Portuguese; Calunga is instead reserved for contexts in which they wish to communicate “in secrecy” or in solidarity. The contemporary secrecy of Calunga reflects Brazil’s history of slavery and its aftermath. That is, the speech was utilized by Africans and Afro-descendents so that they would not be understood by people with authority over them – a common theme especially articulated by older Calunga speakers who are more familiar with the era of slavery in Brazil. In this respect, Calunga represents an ethnolinguistic speech community that has maintained its Afro- Brazilian speech as a form of intragroup cryptolect. However, today Calunga is no longer a race- specific or ethnic language, as European descendents have also acquired it, though the latter speakers constitute a small minority of documented calungadores. Also, there is an intriguing mystery as to why there are not more female speakers of Calunga, which was not completely uncovered from this author’s field research. The following excerpted dialog with a linear English translation was recorded June 27, 2004 in Patrocínio, Minas Gerais. It offers some insight into the context within which Calunga has been traditionally spoken. Participants: JL: Joaquim Luís: Calunga speaker, born 1928 DB: Daniela Bassani Moraes, researcher 103 The Journal of Pan African Studies, vol.5, no.5, June 2012 104 The Journal of Pan African Studies, vol.5, no.5, June 2012 Calunga English JL: Os camanu maioral, os maioral, punha os JL: The powerful men, the powerful men (‘owners, imbundu pá curimá, né? Intão aqueis ibuninhu qui bosses’) used to make the Black men work, right? os camanu pegava e levava pá omenha pá aprumá So the little Black kids that the powerful men used saravo na custela dus imbuninhu. Os camanu to grab and take to the water to beat the backs of the mucafo ficava de cá aprumanu a calunga de jambi little kids. The Black men stayed on one side (oi!) aprumanu aquela calunga de ambi pá aquela praying (oi!) praying so that the water would go omenha estraviá... pá... aquei saravu de omenha do another way... so that water would whip only the embunim, pegá só a omenha. Tá, há, o saravo num water [not the kids]. So the whip would not beat the pegava nu imbunim. Aí, eis calungava de cá, ficava kids. There, they [the Blacks] were on one side, caluganu, aí os camanu maioral vinha com os would pray, there the powerful men would come camanu, tirava, pucurava, os camanu macafu oiava with the Black men, would take down [the Black os camanim e sarava pá, pá, pá uranu, sá? Cê sá que kids], would look for [the wounds on the Black é uranu? kids], the Blacks would look at the boys and would thank “urano” (‘God’), you know? Do you know what “urano” is? DB: Não. DB: No. JL: Vai, uranu é pá, pu céu, pra Deus, pra ajudá a JL: Well, “urano” is for, for heaven, for God, to num acontecê nada, sá? É p’que quem ia apanhá era help that nothing happens, you know? It is because os camanim, né? Ia pu injó da água, a água tocava, the kids were going to be whipped, right? They pegava na correia e pegava nu imbunim, vap, vap, were going to the water house (‘mill’), the water vap, vap. would run, it would impulse the whip and it would beat the Black kids, vap, vap, vap, vap. DB: Batia nu coru. JL: É. Aí, os camanu, os imbundu-cá, ficava nu DB: It would beat their skin. jambi, rezanu, sabe? Rezanu pa aquilu pegá nus, nus JL: Yes. Then, the men, we Black men, would stay camanim. with a saint, praying, you know? Praying that that would not beat the Black kids. DB: Nus imbunim. DB: [Beat] the Black kids. JL: É. Aí dava, vencia o horário lá assim, os camanu ia tirava o camanim saia mesma coisa. JL: Yes. Then the time would come, the men would take down the kids, the Black kids would come out the same way (would come out alright). The history of this Afro-Brazilian speech begins with the Portuguese trade on the western central African coast, in what is today the region of Congo and Angola. Millions of Bantu- speaking Africans were sent to the Brazilian colony from this region for agricultural and mining work. From the etymologies of Calunga’s Bantu words it is evident that these Africans were speakers of Kimbundu, Umbundu, and Kikongo – Bantu languages commonly spoken today in Congo and Angola. During Brazil’s colonial period, Africans and Afro-Brazilians were the majority of the Brazilian population, especially in Minas Gerais, as well as in some other regions. Because of the millions of Africans and Afro-Brazilians, varieties of African languages, pidginized/creolized Portuguese, and/or intertwined languages were spoken throughout colonial plantations and mining communities, within urban areas, and in maroon villages known as quilombos. Thus, Calunga is likely the remnant of the linguistic complexity spoken among Brazil’s former Afro-descendant population of the Triângulo Mineiro. However, it must be underscored that the history of Calunga’s evolution into its current form is essentially unknown. But it is this author’s position that Calunga evolved as a type of Bantu-Portuguese hybrid language from the linguistic complexity found in the colonial estates of Minas Gerais, which could have been some type of pidgin, creole, or intertwined variety. Moreover, this author concurs with the research of Brazilian linguist Yeda Pessoa de Castro, whose studies on falares africanos and the African influence on Brazilian Portuguese indicate that there was as an “Africanization of Portuguese” and a “‘Portuguesement’ of Africanisms” (Castro 1997:57, 2001:125), which need to be taken into account for Calunga as well as for the Caipira Portuguese that influenced it. 105 The Journal of Pan African Studies, vol.5, no.5, June 2012 Afro-Brazilian speech communities such as Calunga are valuable in presenting a more comprehensive picture of what might be referred to as a “Brazilian linguistic puzzle.” It is a “puzzle” in the sense that the picture is incomplete with respect to the African language contribution to Brazil, unlike other areas of Brazilian culture where the African contribution is better understood. That is, research of Afro-Brazilian speech communities like Calunga can provide a more comprehensive picture of the Brazilian linguistic landscape, including a better understanding of the African contribution to Brazilian Portuguese. In this sense, Calunga should be viewed as a type of “microdialect” (Lipski 2004) – i.e. “puzzle piece” – that may aid scholars to better comprehend and evaluate the African language contribution to Brazilian culture and Brazilian Portuguese. Historical Considerations Beginning in the 15th century, the Portuguese voyages, expansion, and subsequent slaving practices shaped Lusophone varieties throughout the world: on Atlantic islands (Madeira, Azores), in Africa (Guinea-Bissau, Angola, Mozambique) and nearby islands (Cape Verde, São Tomé and Príncipe), in South America (Brazil), in India (Diu, Daman, Goa), in China (Macao), in Indonesia (e.g. East Timor), and in Malaysia (e.g. Malacca) (Holm 1989:259-263). Moreover, Portuguese creole was spoken as a lingua franca into the early 19th century in parts of Asia (Reinecke 1975:75). In addition, Portuguese linguistic traces can be found on virtually every continent, ranging from place names and lexical items to dialects and a spectrum of creoles. The Portuguese word crioulo (‘creole’), for instance, originally was used to categorize an African born in Brazil, but later included Europeans born in the New World in a number of languages (Holm 1988:9). The early Portuguese explorers came into contact with a large diversity of languages along the African coast. These Portuguese explorers relied on Arabic translators to communicate with African peoples. However, as the explorers advanced farther south, African languages became unintelligible to the translators. To solve this problem, Henry the Navigator ordered that captured Africans be shipped to Portugal for Portuguese language instruction in order to serve as future translators (Holm 1989:268). This policy, along with the transatlantic trade, resulted in many Africans living in Portugal, including the use of a Portuguese pidgin. The first varieties of pidgin Portuguese developed in or near feitorias (‘trading forts’) along the West African coasts in the latter half of the 15th century and thereafter (Holm 1989:270). In these settings, Portuguese came into contact with different African languages. In particular, languages from the Kwa sub-family (spoken in Ghana, Togo, Benin, Nigeria) and Bantu languages (spoken in Gabon, Congo, Angola) had prolonged contact with Portuguese (Castro 2001:46). In some areas Portuguese pidgins evolved into creoles; in other areas the pidgin persisted for some time but later disappeared, leaving its mark on the local vernacular or being co-opted by other European-based creoles (Holm 1989:268). 106 The Journal of Pan African Studies, vol.5, no.5, June 2012 For instance, West African varieties of French and English have a number of Portuguese-derived words (Holm 1989:271). Portuguese colonizers known as lançados (‘outcasts’) were important middlemen between African languages and Portuguese, and may have been an important catalyst for the evolution of Portuguese pidgins and creoles (Couto 1992; Holm 1989:270-271). Such middlemen were a vital part of the Portuguese trade along the African coasts, both in goods and people, into the 17th century and beyond (Holm 1989:271). Megenney (1984:179), for example, writes that the Portuguese lançados “were instrumental in promoting easier access to Black Africans in many sectors,” and “taught their African friends and neighbors how to speak the Portuguese-based reconnaissance language.” Further, many lançados took African wives, effectively creating biracial, bilingual, and bicultural communities. The first colonizers of Brazil, arriving in the 1530s – largely uneducated men or lançados who spoke differing regional varieties of European Portuguese –, came into contact with indigenous Brazilians who spoke varieties of Tupi-Guarani. Acculturation took place between the native Brazilians and the Portuguese colonizers, including intermarriage with indigenous women and the adoption of indigenous foods and customs (Mello 1997:60-62). A language labeled Língua Geral (‘general language’) emerged as a koiné version of Tupi-Guarani as a result of migratory movements of indigenous Brazilians after the arrival of the Portuguese (Mello 1997:59). Reinecke (1975:119) argues that Língua Geral spread widely throughout Brazil because of the explorations of the bandeirantes (i.e. on-land Portuguese explorers) from the mid- 16th to the mid-18th century, and due to Jesuit missionaries. Moreover, Rodrigues (1996:10) notes that there were two varieties of Língua Geral spoken along the coasts where the Portuguese had established sugarcane plantations: the Tupi variety spoken along the Paulista coast and the Tupinambá variety spoken from Rio de Janeiro to the Amazon River. On the first sugarcane plantations of the Brazilian Northeast, Portuguese was probably the dominant language, though there was an initial state of linguistic complexity (Mello 1997:59). Mello explains: In the agricultural areas […] the linguistic scene was complex […]: African languages […], pidgin-like contact languages, creoles, in addition to a restructured Portuguese spoken as a first language by [Africans] born in Brazil. Such complexity is associated with the ethnic and linguistic diversity […] brought from Africa. Many of them, besides speaking their mother tongues, probably also had more or less advanced knowledge of a type of pidgin or creole of Portuguese base. (Mello 1998:74, my translation) 107 The Journal of Pan African Studies, vol.5, no.5, June 2012 The first waves of Africans in Brazil worked alongside indigenous captives, and therefore may have learned Língua Geral (Mello 1997:72). But some studies suggest that Portuguese Jesuits, not the general population, actually spoke Língua Geral (Holm 2004:52). Or, as Megenney (2002:589) argues, Língua Geral was likely spoken most amongst indigenous Brazilians. With the increased arrival of Africans to Brazil, however, Língua Geral was pushed to the margins of the Brazilian territory, such as the Amazon region (Mello 1997:76).3 Many Africans today are multilingual (Dimmendaal 2011:225). Hence, when Africans arrived in Brazil during the transatlantic trade, they too were likely multilingual. That is, they likely spoke their native African languages and possibly a type of pidgin or creole that was acquired in the Portuguese feitorias on the West African shores or on the Portuguese Atlantic islands (i.e. São Tomé and Príncipe, Cape Verde). Lipski (2005:62), for instance, notes that “Africans taken to Brazil […] spoke a Portuguese pidgin during the first stages of their language acquisition, and many of the features of the pidgin documented for Portugal probably arose in Brazil as well.” In particular, Sãotomense was likely spoken in Brazil: It seems reasonable to assume that, whatever the West African pidgin and creole input in the Brazilian linguistic situation, Sãotomense was likely to have been a representative part of it. Coincidentally, the Sãotomense substrate is composed of the language groups that would have played this role in any Brazilian Portuguese, i.e. Kwa languages from the Bight of Benin and Bantu languages from the Kongo. (Mello 1997:231-232) However, a wide-spread creole was probably not maintained in Brazil (Holm 2004:47; McWhorter 2000:28; Megenney 2002), though early creoles or semi-creoles were possibly spoken for a few generations in certain regions of Brazil.4 Reinecke (1975:111) nonetheless argues that the question over whether creoles were spoken in Brazil “cannot be regarded as closed,” listing three theoretical scenarios for pidginization/creolization in colonial Brazil: 1.) Creolization of Portuguese, Tupi, or both where Língua Geral was most spoken; 2.) Pidginization of Portuguese along the border settlements of Portuguese colonization and indigenous Brazilian areas; 3.) Creolization of Portuguese in dense African settlements, later followed by decreolization. Mello (1997:260-262) hypothesizes that, by the end of the 17th century, a partially restructured Brazilian Portuguese vernacular had developed, which was likely the native language of the first Afro-Brazilians, as well as the target language of newly-arrived Africans. Furthermore, Holm (2004:47) adds that “certain features of the nonstandard variety [of Brazilian Portuguese] indicate the influence of Amerindian, African, and creole languages.” Language contact in Brazil with African and indigenous languages persisted into the 19th century, introducing several lexical items and possibly some grammatical influences into Brazilian Portuguese. For example, recent scholarship has estimated that there are as many as 4000 words derived from African languages in Brazilian Portuguese (Bonvini 2008a:54, 2008b:101). 108 The Journal of Pan African Studies, vol.5, no.5, June 2012 That said, this estimate is less than the number of words derived from Tupi-Guarani (Bonvini: idem). According to Bonvini (2008b:117), such Africanisms entered Brazilian Portuguese by means of code-switching speakers of various African languages and Portuguese. Despite the many varieties of African languages that the Portuguese (and other European) traders encountered, Castro (1967:27) points out that there were three major African regions that provided significant numbers of Africans to Brazil: Ghana to Nigeria, central Angola, and northern Mozambique. Among these regions it was the Bantu languages – particularly Kimbundu, Umbundu, and Kikongo (which were labeled as “congo-angola” by the Portuguese) – that exerted the greatest influence in Brazil (Castro 2002:198). Typologically homogenous, Kikongo was spoken by the Bakongo people of the former Congo Kingdom; Kimbundu by the Mbundu (or Ambundu) people of Central Angola; and Umbundu by the Ovimbundu people near the port of Benguela (Bonvini and Petter 1998:73; Castro 2001:34-37).5 During the 17th and 18th centuries, Angola was the primary provider of African peoples to Brazil, mostly from the Ndongo Kingdom (Kimbundu speakers) in the north and the Benguela Kingdom (Umbundu speakers) in the south. Understanding this past Angola-Brazil nexus is essential not only in regard to the African languages spoken in Brazil, but also in regard to the possible African influence in Brazilian Portuguese beyond lexical items (Lipski 2008). Castro (2002:39-43) argues that the predominate presence of speakers of Kimbundu, Umbundu, and Kikongo in colonial Brazil was due to the extended period of exportation – some four centuries – , the demographic density where these languages were spoken in Africa, and their extensive geographic distribution in Brazil. For instance, Castro’s (1981) study of Bahian Portuguese – excluding the liturgical language of Candomblés – indicates that 77.3% of African lexical items of that dialect originate from Bantu languages (Castro 1981:4). Bahia, of course, received many Africans from West Africa – speaking languages such as Yoruba, Ewe-Fon, and Akan – in addition to Bantu speakers. Nevertheless, as reviewed, a great number of languages were likely spoken during Brazil’s colonial period: indigenous languages, African languages, (restructured) Portuguese, pidgins and/or creoles, and intertwined varieties. Such a multilinguistic situation raises an important question: Exactly what was spoken – and to and by whom – in colonial Brazil? The answer to this question is likely hidden in the depths of time, but there must have been linguistic diversity, bilingualism and/or multilingualism. Needless to say, very little is actually known of the varieties of African languages spoken during the colonial period of Brazil. In fact, there are only two primary sources. The first, Arte da língua de Angola, is a text of 48 pages, which was written by the Jesuit priest Pedro Dias and published in Lisbon in 1697 (Bonvini 2008a:33-39).6 Interestingly, Pedro Dias had served as a priest in Angola where he learned Kimbundu, later moving to Brazil after the Dutch invasions of Angola. The objective of this publication was to provide the Jesuits with a resource to learn Kimbundu in order to communicate with Africans in both Angola and Brazil. 109 The Journal of Pan African Studies, vol.5, no.5, June 2012