Journal of Islamic Studies and Culture December 2015, Vol. 3, No. 2, pp. 108-132 ISSN: 2333-5904 (Print), 2333-5912 (Online) Copyright © The Author(s). All Rights Reserved. Published by American Research Institute for Policy Development DOI: 10.15640/jisc.v3n2a12 URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.15640/jisc.v3n2a12 The African Roots and Transnational Nature of Islam Abdul Karim Bangura Introduction Most works dealing with Islam and Africa trace the roots of their connection to the first Hijra when two groups totaling more than 100 Muslims fled persecution in Mecca and arrived in the Kingdom of Axiom (modern-day Ethiopia) in 614 and 615 AD, respectively. A few works would begin with the story of Bilal ibn Rabah or Bilal al- Habashi, the former enslaved Ethiopian born in Mecca during the late 6th Century (sometime between 578 and 583 AD) and chosen by Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) as the first Muezzin (High Priest, or Caller of the Faithful to prayer) of the Islamic faith. More recent sources would add the fact that the African/Black Saudi Arabian Sheikh Adil Kalbani is now the Imam of the Grand Mosque of Mecca. This chronology misses the African roots of Islam: i.e. the story of the Egyptian Hagar or Hājar (in Arabic), the second wife of Abraham or Ibrahim (in Arabic). It also misses the fact that Luqman The Wise, who wrote the 31st Sura of the Qur’an, was an African. Today, Islam is practiced everywhere and has emerged as the fastest growing din (meaning in Arabic “way of life,” as Islam is more than just a religion) in the world. The African flavor to Islamic practices is evident in the Americas, the Caribbean, and many European countries with significant concentrations of African Muslims. Using Transnational Theory, this paper analyzes the challenges African-centered Muslims face in these majority-Christian states in terms of the concept of the sovereign state and the difficulties that this poses. Thus, the following aspects are examined: (a) defining new African- centered Muslim actors, (b) modes of change African-centered Muslims encounter, (c) factors impacting success of African-centered Muslims, and (d) challenges for the role of the state in dealing with African-centered Muslims. Before doing all this, however, it makes sense to begin with a brief discussion of Transnational Theory, with its attendant concept transnationalism, and Africancentrism for the theoretical grounding of this essay. As I state in my essay titled “A Time Series Analysis of the African Growth and Opportunity Act: Testing the Efficacy of Transnationalism” (Bangura, 2009), transnationalism is defined as the heightened interconnectivity between people around the world and the loosening of boundaries between countries. The concept of transnationalism is credited to Randolph Bourne, an early 20th Century writer, who used it to describe a new way of thinking about intercultural relationships. Scholars of transnationalism seek to show how the flow of people, ideas, and goods between regions has increased the relevance of globalization. They argue that it makes no sense to link specific nation state boundaries with, for instance, migratory labor forces, transnational corporations, international money flow, international communication flow, and international scientific cooperation (see, for example, Appadura, 1997; Barkan, ed., 2003; Guamizo and Smith, eds., 1997; Hoerges, Sand and Teubner, eds., 2004; and Keohane and Nye, 1992). According to John Rourke, Transnational Theory is concerned with external challenges to the authority of the state and the nationalism that binds together the state and the citizenry. In addition, he points out that many analysts have shown that the world is being brought together by the habits of cooperation and cross-cultural understanding that result from increased economic interdependence, rapid travel and communication. He cites many examples of this development, including the fast-food McDonalds Restaurant which now can be found in almost every country in the world. He adds that people all over the world “are moving toward living in a more culturally homogenized global village” (1997:43). Abdul Karim Bangura 109 Furthermore, Rourke notes that the concept of transnationalism encompasses a range of activities, loyalties and other phenomena that connect humans across nations and national boundaries. As people of different nations engage in common political efforts of different nations and raising the possibility of having a sense of primary political identification that does not focus on the nation-state, transnationalist thought and activity can undermine nationalism and its tangible manifestation—i.e. the national state (Rourke, 1997:166). Rourke further identifies three stages in the development of transnational thought. The first stage is early transnational thought. This stage is traced to the Stoics of ancient Greece and Rome. From about 300 BC to AD 200, Stoicism flourished in a political environment that witnessed the demise of Athens and the other Greek city-states as the focus of political organization and the emergence of empires: the empire of Macedonia to the north and that of Rome to the west. The emphasis in the teachings of Plato and Aristotle on the superiority of the geographically small, ethnically homogenous city-state was discredited and supplanted by a new direction of thinking founded in about 300 BC by the philosopher Zeno, a Cypriot of Phoenician heritage. Stoic thought was advanced by such great philosophers as Epictetus (AD ca 50-120), a Roman slave, and Marcus Aurelius (AD 121-180), a Roman emperor (Rourke, 1997:167-168). The second stage is later transnational thought, which is traced to Thomas Paine for stating in his famous 1776 pamphlet, Common Sense, that “We have it in our power to begin the world over again” in advocating the idea of transcending local political structure and power. Paine’s commitment was to a philosophy and not to a country, as he described himself a “citizen of the world.” Paine’s prediction of a transnational march saw a time of free trade and the establishment of an international congress to resolve differences among states. During this same period, the philosopher Immanuel Kant pushed the idea of international cooperation for peace much further when he advocated in his 1784 work titled Idea for a Universal History from a Cosmopolitan Point of View that countries should abandon their “lawless state of savagery and enter a federation of people in which every state could expect to derive its security and rights…from a united power and the law-governed decisions of a united will.” Early communist theory also had a strong element of transnational thought, as Friedrich Engels and Karl Marx in their 1848 work titled The Communist Manifesto called for the communality of humankind and foresaw a global community (Rourke, 1997:168-169). The third stage is contemporary transnational thought. This stage represents the reemergence of transnationalism in the last century after existing on the periphery of political thought due to the dominance of nationalist thought during the halcyon days. Another recent school of thought that is related to transnationalism is postmodernism or post- positivism, which argues that because we have been trapped by stale ways of conceiving of how we organize and conduct ourselves, we must therefore “deconstruct” discourse in order to escape all our preconditions. This latter perspective relates to politics in a number of ways. For instance, postmodernists or post-positivists would urge us to use non-gender specific words, such as diplomat, instead of gender-specific words, such as statesman, in order to deconstruct our stereotyped notions of male and female by distinguishing between sex and gender, as sex is biological and gender is attitudinal and behavioral (Rourke, 1997:169-170). Thus, as I also state in my essay cited earlier (Bangura, 2009), the usefulness of Transnational Theory hinges on the fact that it can be used to designate recent global patterns. For example, migration used to be perceived as a directed movement with a point of departure and a point of arrival. Nowadays, migration has been described by transnationalism theorists as an ongoing movement between two or more spaces. Many more migrants have developed strong transnational ties to more than one home country, blurring the congruence of social and geographic spaces, due in large part to the increased international transportation and telecommunication technologies. For Africancentrism, as I state in my book titled African-Centered Research Methodologies: From Ancient Times to the Present (Bangura, 2011:149-150), from the late 1980s to the mid-1990s, many, and consistent, definitions of the approach were proffered by Africanists. The first definition was by Molefi Kete Asante who defined “Africancentricity [African-centered] as the placing of African ideals at the center of any analysis that involves African culture and behavior” (1987:6). The second definition was by C. Tsehloane Keto who defined the “African-centered perspective [as an approach that] rests on the premise that it is valid to position Africa as a geographical and cultural starting base in the study of peoples of African Descent” (1989:1). 110 Journal of Islamic Studies and Culture, Vol. 3(2), December 2015 The third definition was by Wade Nobles who defined “Afrocentric, Africentric, or African-Centered [as being] interchangeable terms representing the concept which categorizes a quality of thought and practice which is rooted in the cultural image and interest of African people and which represents and reflects the life experiences, history and traditions of African people as the center of analyses. It is therein that the intellectual and philosophical foundation [with] which African people should create their own scientific criterion for authenticating human reality” exists (1990:47). The fourth definition was by Maulana Karenga who defined “Afrocentricity...as a quality of thought and practice rooted in the cultural image and human interest of African people [and their descendants]. To be rooted in the cultural image of African people is to be anchored in the views and values of African people as well as in the practice which emanates from and gives rise to these views and values” (1993:36). Finally, Lathardus Goggins II defined “African-centered [as being able] to construct and use frames of reference, cultural filters and behaviors that are consistent with the philosophies and heritage of African cultures in order to advance the interest of people of African descent” (1996:18). From the preceding definitions, it is evident that Africancentrism presupposes knowledge of a commonality of cultural traits among the diverse peoples of Africa which characterize and constitute a worldly view that is some how distinct from that of the foreign world views that have influenced African peoples. Africancentrism simply means that the universe is a collection of relationships, and an individual or a group being in that universe is defined by and dependent upon these relationships. Africans, prior to European and Asian dominance, and still to some degree now, considered the Cause or God as being a part of His creation while Europeans on the other hand considered God separate from His creation. An African-centered Muslim then is one who includes African culture and behavior in his/her practice of Islam while adhering to the major tenets of the din. The question that emerges here then is the following: How have African-centered Muslims been able to mix Islamic and African practices? The following synopsis of the history of Islam in Africa I recount in my book titled Keyboard Jihad: Attempts to Rectify Misperceptions and Misrepresentations of Islam (2010:189-193) provides an answer. As in the rest of the world, Islam is the fastest growing faith in Africa today with 52.39% of the 2.1 billion global Muslim population (muslimpopulation.com, July 2012). Islam reached East Africa in 615 CE, just five years after the birth of the religion when some Muslims from Mecca fled to modern day Ethiopia to escape religious prosecution—today, 50 percent of the citizens of Ethiopia, the original home of the Coptic Church, which is the first church in the world, are Muslim. The spread of Islam into North Africa was followed by the spread into West Africa and later Central and then Southern Africa. There is not a single African country today that does not have a Muslim population. Africa has the second largest population of Muslims (401,975,628 or 27 percent) in the world next to Asia (1,023,564,005 or 69 percent). The breakdown of the Muslim populations for the five geopolitical regions in Africa, in order of size, is as follows: North Africa, 180,082,076 or 89 percent; West Africa, 133,994,675 or 50 percent; East Africa, 66,381,242 or 34 percent; Central Africa, 12,582,592 or 15 percent; and Southern Africa, 8,935,043 or seven percent. Consequently, an examination of the history of and reasons for Islam’s growth in Africa is imperative for understanding the impact of the religion on the continent. The Almoravid Berbers of North Africa, who became the bridge between the Muslim conquerors of Spain in the 18th Century and the African traders of the Sudan, were among the first African converts to Islam and the first to perform the annual Hajj (holy pilgrimage) to Mecca in Arabia. Occupying a territory known as Western Sahara, this particular Berber ethnic group of the Sanhaja found itself caught between the strong Moroccan lands and the Ghana Empire to the south. The Sanhaja were able to compel the Muslims to bring down the Ghanaian Kingdom in the name of religious propagation. While infighting later caused the collapse of the Almoravid dynasty in Ghana after less than 15 years, Berber control of the region resulted in the wide ranging conversion of West Africa to the Islamic faith. Besides the fact that the arrival of Islam in Africa as far west of the Atlantic shore dates back to over 1,000 years, this phenomenon of Islamization is a much more interesting fact than often perceived. The Almoravid constituted a dynamic religious movement often defined as fanatical, which is credited with the religious conversion of numerous African communities. In the Western Sudan and areas south of the Sahara, religious conversion was in part based on the desire to cause the collapse of the Ghanaian king’s lengthy reign. The organization of these former enemies into an empire-destructing force resulted in the unified Almoravid campaign, which toppled Ghana around 1070 CE under the leadership of Abu Bakr. A more in-depth investigation, however, bears witness that the majority of historical analysis regarding the rapid and blanket spread of Islam was not entirely by trade or a result of militaristic force. Abdul Karim Bangura 111 While Islam was introduced in West Africa by both of these means, the religion spread throughout East Africa and the Sahel by the piety and scholarship of its early personalities; many reverts also traveled long distances to West Africa to study the Islamic faith. The regular migration of travelers rendered Mali, not long after the Berber invasion, the religious Medina of the African continent. The fall of the Almoravid in 1087 CE represented the liberation of the Ghanaian populace. Together, the southward flow of Islamization from the northern region and the westward directed Islamic propagation from the eastern regions of the Sudan were the cause of the domino effect in the Islamic conversion of West and parts of North-central Africa. Considering that many of the Atlantic Berbers were of Mande origin, known to be peace loving and studious, they became part of the Islamic ‘ulema (scholars trained in Islam and Islamic Law) of West Africa; the transmutation to Islam remained a sedated one rather than replicating an Almoravid imperialistic model. What renders this southward metamorphosis the more phenomenal is that, as stated earlier, Islam first entered into Africa from the lands of the Ethiopians in the east. In the history of Islam from its early inception in Mecca, the ruling oligarchy, consisting of wealthy merchants and bankers who rejected religious conversion and oppressed the small band of Muslim reverts, regarded the teachings of Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) as revolutionary. In order to escape persecution, Muhammad (PBUH) directed 52-53 of the early Muslims to migrate to the land of Abyssinia in 622 CE. There the Muslims were welcomed and protected by An-Nagashi (the Negus) of Ethiopia named Ashama. Very few Muslims settled in East Africa, however, indicating that the spread of Islam in Africa was not generated from the Ethiopian shores of the Red Sea. Rather, it flowed westward into Algeria, West Sahara and Morocco from Nilotic Egypt before making its journey southward into the Sahara, Sub-Sahara and the Sahel. Remarkably, the conquest of Egypt by the Muslim army freed the Christian Copts from Byzantinian control as well as reverted much of the Coptic and Byzantinian Orthodox Church followers to Islam, with much credit being given to Islam’s simplicity and personal freedom. At that time, only the Nile Valley from Egypt to Abyssinia had been infiltrated by Christianity. While the reversion of Africans to Islam did eventually encompass most of the east African coast from Egypt to Madagascar, the religion was slow to penetrate the central and southern interior. On the other hand, the Muslim reversion from the north was a blanket transformation above the equatorial zone. Had Islam not entered Africa from the north, it is likely that the entire continent would have been Christianized when the invading European colonizers focused their attention on what they called the “dark continent.” By the time the Ghanaian Empire fell around 1070 CE, a Mandingo warrior named Soundiata Keita had already occupied himself with defeating Souman Kourou Kanté, King of the Soso entity to the southwest. From 1230 until his death in 1255 CE, Soundiata expanded the Maliam Empire assuring that the Islamization of the new Malian Kingdom was completed by the end of the 13th Century. Soundiata’s son and successor, Mansa Uli, established the Hajj to Mecca as a permanent institution among the Mansas. Among the memorable of occasions in early African Islam is the Hajj of Emperor Mansa Musa who ruled Mali from 1312 to 1337 CE, followed by his brother, Mansa Sulayman (1341-1360 CE). During the nearly 45-year reign of the two brothers, Mali became known for its many and unique mosques and was regarded as the center of Islamic scholarship. While much of early African history remained the property of Griots (oral historians) for centuries, the reign, particularly the Hajj of Mansa Musa, has been widely documented in written records. So great was the entourage and so vast the wealth of gold carried to Arabia by Mansa Musa, in 1324-1325 CE, that some regard African wealth as the financier of the further propagation and spread of Islam in the later centuries. Without a doubt, much of the gold transported across the desert trade routes by Mansa Musa remained in Egypt, Syria and Mecca and at all points along the way. The estimated 12 tons of gold made Mali the most well-known African kingdom, and its diverse but peaceful expansion is attributed to this factor along with the unification and political ability of its leaders. Mansa Musa’s nurturing of Islamic reversion and sponsorship of the building of mosques inaugurated Mali as a depot of Muslim scholars, facilitating a religious Imamate that was a necessary and important link in the global Islamic tradition. The city of Timbuktu, claiming a unique heritage of diverse traders, languages and mobility, eventually claimed itself heir to the African division of the Islamic Caliphate. 112 Journal of Islamic Studies and Culture, Vol. 3(2), December 2015 It was common for traders and travelers to settle there for months to several years before moving on. The sedentary families of Mali, particularly in Timbuktu, possess generations of history about this transitory land, having remained inheritors of its cities for centuries unchanged. Mali’s present day capital, Bamako, became the second West African island of traditional Islamic belief and practice. Like other major Islamic communities from the Atlantic to the Niger River and Lake Chad, the political class was slowly replaced by the Islamic ‘ulema. By the time Sonni Ali became the ruler of Mali in 1493, the transatlantic trade was already underway. Although slavery existed in some parts of Africa before the Europeans invaded the continent, the division into war slaves or home slaves did not imply economic significance. The system was also not entirely exploitative but was a common utilization of war captives and the indebted, and did not generally replace the labor of free men. In fact, some of the slaves married into their owners’ families and some became important figures in society, including being rulers. Therefore, the Atlantic slave trade, in adding the characteristics of brutality and dehumanization, created an institution bent on quickly deconstructing the centuries-old traditions and social fiber of African societies. Islam’s impact has varied considerably from one African country to another and even within a country. For instance, Islam among the Hausa in Nigeria is quite different from that among the Yoruba in the same country. While Yoruba Islam is less politicized, that of the Hausa is the opposite. The Yoruba are more likely to explode in defense of ethnic interests than in pursuit of religious concerns. For the Hausa, both religion and ethnicity can get very political. Periodic religious explosions have occurred involving Muslims of different denominations in the north of Nigeria, sometimes leading to the loss of many lives. The links between religion and politics among Muslims in the north are deeper and more durable than such links among Muslims in the south. The major reason for this situation is that historically, pre-colonial Hausa city-states often attempted to enforce the Sharia (Islamic Law) and fused mosque/church and state. Pre-colonial Yoruba kingdoms, on the other hand, were based on indigenous Yoruba customs and traditions. The precise combination and weight between indigenous loyalty and Islamic allegiance notwithstanding, the Muslim presence in Nigeria has deep roots. In fact, the number of Muslims in Nigeria (126,635,626) is greater than that of any Arab country, including Egypt (69,536,644). There have also been many occasions when Nigerians going on pilgrimage to Mecca constituted either the largest or the second largest contingent of pilgrims from any part of the Muslim world. The new international horizons within Africa are an extension of a process initiated by Islamization in some parts of the continent. Islam introduced a new understanding of distance and space, as well as a new comprehension of time and duration. The obligation on every Muslim to go on pilgrimage to Mecca at least once in his/her lifetime was an extended perception of distance. African Muslims were forced to think of a far-away place called Mecca as a target to reach in their own lifetime. For many centuries, many African Muslims marched overland over many months, not returning away from pestilence or draught, not seeking new worlds to conquer, but simply to visit Mecca. Islam also introduced its own discipline of time in societies which previously were not enslaved to time. Islam’s discipline of time was revealed in the five daily prayers mandated for every Muslim. Nonetheless, this revolution in the discipline of time succeeded only in the religious domain. Prayers in African mosques, like those in other parts of the world, are preceded not only by the Muezzin calling believers to prayer but also by a sermon in mostly Arabic. Most Muslim children have to learn the art of reading and reciting the Qur’an, even if they do not understand what the Arabic words mean. Many Muslim schools in Africa are referred to as Qur’anic schools, emphasizing the verbal mastery of the Holy Book. The hymns in the mosques in Africa are in Arabic language and are memorized and recited. Islam has also appeared more accommodating to the wider cultures of Africa. For example, the use of the drum is widely accepted in certain Muslim ceremonies. In addition, Islam has been less militant against female circumcision compared to Christianity, even though, by the canons of orthodox Islam, female circumcision is equally alien and un-Islamic. Yet such deeply Muslim societies as Somalia and northern Sudan practice female circumcision on a wider scale. There are also areas of accidental similarities between African and Islamic cultures. One widely discussed area of convergence is that of polygamy. Islam has a limit of four wives at anytime (polygyny), whereas African cultures have an open-ended policy. Normally, African Muslims have not been tempted to go beyond four wives. Abdul Karim Bangura 113 Nonetheless, it has been suggested by some observers that part of Islam’s success in Africa is precisely because it tolerates polygamy compared with monogamy taught by Christianity. This kind of argument fails to take into consideration the numerous other disciplines Islam imposes upon its adherents. Among these is Islam’s prohibition of alcohol. Many traditional African societies used alcohol for a variety of cultural and ritual ceremonies. African Islam has not conceded on this issue. That African Muslims brought their African-centered Islamic practices to the New World is a well-documented fact. For example, as Edward Curtis IV (2009) recounts, enslaved African Muslims combined the old with the new. Those in the South did not dissimilate; they proffered that Christianity and Islam were two expressions of the same religious idea: “God, they say, is Allah, and Jesus Christ is Mohammed—the religion is the same, but different countries have different names” (Curtis IV, 2009:19). Curtis notes that on the Georgia coast, however, since Christianity had not become the majority religion among African Americans on the island until the Reconstruction and Jim Crow eras, Muslim religious practices before the Civil War (1861-1865) were far more performed alongside African traditional religion rather than alongside Christianity. Local residents spent the night singing and praying when they celebrated the harvest festival. They beat drums, shook rattles made out of dried gourds, and danced when the sun came up. Called the ring shout, participants in the dance moved in a counterclockwise direction and fell into a trance. Their performance of the dance did not preclude them from performing Muslim rituals and saw no contradiction between African traditional religion and Islam. They were “mighty particular about praying,” used prayer beads, and recited Arabic words (Curtis IV, 2009:19). Some African American Muslims on the coast, Curtis points out, combined Islamic rituals with elements of hoodoo or conjure—a religious activity labeled pejoratively as magic and superstition—in their form of Islam. Every morning at sun-up, they would kneel on the floor in a room and bow over and touch their heads to the floor three times and then say a prayer. When they finished praying, they would say “Ameen, ameen, ameen.” They called Friday their “prayer day,” a reference to the Islamic tradition of congregational prayers on that day (Curtis IV, 2009:20). As Curtis also states, some African Muslims in the area seemed to frown at hoodoo practices as superstitious. Salih Bilali on St. Simon Island, for example, was a strict Muslim who abstained from alcohol and kept the various fasts, including Ramadan. He was contemptuous of those Muslims that held on to their African beliefs in “fetishes and evil spirits”—for instance, killing a chicken to heal an illness. Still, Bilali would suggest that a patient place an amulet containing passages of the Qur’an around his/her neck or recite certain litanies using prayer beads. Muslim piety in West Africa during that time was virtually defined by such practices (Curtis IV, 2009:20-21). Nonetheless, as Curtis points out, for African American Muslims and enslaved African Americans more generally, however, Bilali’s criticisms of African traditional religion as magic and superstition was a minority perspective. Enslaved Africans often employed any religious practice they perceived would lift their spirits above the dehumanizing conditions under which they were forced to live. Testimonies of enslaved Africans who could no longer stand the dehumanization rising up and flying back to Africa were many. They believed that if the body could not be transported back home, then at least the spirit could. They would face east, in the direction of both Mecca and Africa, and prayed to Allah (SWT) who had ultimate sovereignty over all affairs both human and divine. They believed that as one bowed at the waist and touched his/her head to the earth, his/her spirit took flight to Africa and was restored (Curtis IV, 2009:21-22). Also, in the words of Curtis, …many African American Muslims in the twentieth century would testify later that by practicing Islam, they were reclaiming a religious and spiritual heritage that had been stolen from them when their ancestors were kidnapped in Africa. Their desire to reconnect with a Muslim past, like those slaves who faced east, pointed not only toward Africa but also toward Mecca, the axis of the worldwide Muslim community. The religious imaginations of twentieth- century African American Muslims leapt across the Atlantic and so did their bodies, as they visited West Africa and Egypt, made pilgrimage to Mecca in Arabia, and toured Pakistan and other Muslim majority countries. For many of them, such travel felt like a homecoming (Curtis IV, 2009:22). 114 Journal of Islamic Studies and Culture, Vol. 3(2), December 2015 In the following sections, I probe the following four major research questions based on the four aspects the essay covers mentioned earlier: (1) What definitions are employed to characterize new African-centered Muslim actors in the Americas, the Caribbean, and Europe? (2) What modes of change do African-centered Muslims encounter in these states? (3) What factors impact the success of African-centered Muslims in these states? (4) What challenges does the state encounter in dealing with African-centered Muslims? In order to systematically ground the analysis of the data collected to examine these questions, a qualitative descriptive case study approach is used. This method, as we state in our book titled Peace Research for Africa: Critical Essays on Methodology (Bangura and McCandless, 2007:128), helps a researcher to answer the question “what is?” in developing accurate profiles of persons, events, or situations while emphasizing words as opposed to numerical values. Defining New African-centered Muslim Actors To clearly define new African-centered Muslim actors in Europe, the Americas and the Caribbean, a brief background of their ancestors will help. In the case of Europe, as Leslie Rout, Jr. recounts, the initial arrival of African Muslims from South of the Sahara into the Iberian Peninsula can be traced back to when Gebel-el-Tarik (Tariq ibn- Ziyad) and his Moorish legions crossed over from North Africa and, after six years of campaign (711-716 AD), brought Iberia under Muslim rule. During the 8th Century, some of the defeated Christians who retreated into the Pyrenees launched the Reconquista—i.e. a series of wars with Muslims in order to recapture their lost territories. European Christians had come to view the armed struggle against the Muslims in Iberia as a Western crusade by the 13th Century. As the papacy granted plenary indulgences to all those who fought against the Moors, some Frankish knights were encouraged to join the struggle. Moorish rule was permanently ended in the Portuguese kingdom in 1250 (Rout, Jr., 1976:3). As numerous Moors left the liberated kingdom of Portugal in the wake of the European victory, the area faced an acute shortage of manual laborers. Many Muslims, realizing that their defeat was eminent, went to Granada—the only area in Iberia that was still under the control of their coreligionists. Several hundred years of recurrent fighting had diminished the native population of the kingdom. There was also a reduction in the number of slaves at the end of the wars, as many of them were ransomed by both Christians and Muslims (Rout, Jr., 1976:3-4). The Christians came to perceive the Black Africans as soldiers fighting for the Moors or as slave labor during the centuries of bitter struggle. The logical answer to the Portuguese’s labor shortage after 1250 was therefore Blacks. A few Portuguese traveled to the Barbary Coast to buy Blacks at a very high cost, as desert tribesmen who delivered the captives controlled the trans-Sahara trade routes. In addition to the occasional raids on Moorish vessels, Christians obtained Black slaves by buying them from Arab dealers. In essence, while Black slavery did exist in 13th and 14th Century Portugal, it was not common because it was too expensive (Rout, Jr., 1976:4). The 15th Century Portuguese policy of discovery and expansion was driven by the combination of technological advancement in shipbuilding and navigation, a favorable geographical position on the Atlantic Ocean and Africa, and the perception that the Reconquista could be successfully carried out in Morocco. In August 1415, Ceuta (Morocco), a major terminal on the trans-Sahara trade route was taken over by an expeditionary Portuguese force. Since until the 7th Century all of North Africa had been Christian, the Portuguese, in keeping up with their past history, claimed that they were fighting a holy war. The papacy supported the pretentions of the Portuguese, urging the whole of Europe to back Lisbon and authorizing a new round of plenary indulgences for the troops (Rout, Jr., 1976:4). Nevertheless, the impecunious Portuguese could not follow-up their initial success with another campaign. Moreover, Prince Henry (later named “the Navigator”), Duke of Viscu, who became the commander at Cueta in 1418, viewed the frontal attack in Morocco as only a part of the greater effort that was necessary to smash the Islamic states on the Barbary Coast. When he became director of the Military Order of Christ, he was also able to gain the financial means to pursue his ambitions. Fearing that the state of Castile might attempt to take the Madeira Islands, Henry sent João Gonçalves Zarco and Tristão Vas to seize them. The occupation of these two territories in 1419 and 1420, respectively, marked the true beginning of Portuguese colonialism in Africa (Route, Jr., 1976:4-5). As we will later see, descendants of the Moors continue their ancestors’ Islamic proselytization in the Americas, particularly in Mexico. Other writers have also provided abundant information on early African Muslim influences in Europe. For example, Affan Seljuq informs us that before Napoleon Bonaparte launched his attack on Egypt in 1798, he addressed his troops as follows: Abdul Karim Bangura 115 “Soldiers you are engaged in a conquest whose consequences will be incalculable” (Seljuq, 1997:1). The historical significance of the events that followed the invasion proved the truth of Napoleon’s assessment. Western interest in North Africa was spurred by Napoleon’s brief occupation of Egypt and Syria in 1799, paving the way for further French incursion into the region. By 1830, French troops had landed in Algeria (Seljuq, 1997:1). World War I (1914-1918) saw Algerian, Moroccan and Tunisian troops fighting alongside French troops. North Africa’s military assistance to France was so enormous that it contributed significantly to the change in the direction of migration between Europe and North Africa. As Seljuq puts it, Algeria sent 173,000 men, whose gallantry may be assessed by the fact that 25,000 lost their lives. Tunisia contributed 56,000 soldiers, 12,000 of whom never returned home. Moroccan troops participated in the defense of Paris. Not only did the Maghreb help France with troops but it also provided relief and manpower to replace the French workers who were serving in the army. About 119,000 Algerian youth went to France to take up jobs in factories in 1919. Similarly, Moroccan workers arrived in Bourdeaux as early as 1916. In the early decades of the twentieth century, these North African settlers initiated the process of cultural interaction on the French mainland. How much of a change the general complexion and ethnic composition of French cities have undergone can be best judged by looking at Paris. According to the 1980s statistics, about 25% of the total population of inner Paris, and 14% of the metropolitan area, were foreigners, the majority of whom came from Algeria (Seljuq, 1997:1). In the case of the Americas and the Caribbean, contrary to some writers like Edward Curtis IV (2009), United Islamic Association (2009) and Lindsay Jones (2012) who trace African Muslims’ presence in the area to the enslaved African Ayuba Suleiman Diallo in 1730 or 1731, other more informed writers such as Ivan Van Sertima (1976), Barry Fell (1983) and Abdus Sattar Ghazali (2012) demonstrate that Muslims were in the area at least 300 years before Christopher Columbus’ visit. From the latter group, we learn that in 1178, a Chinese document known as the Sung Document recorded the voyage of Muslim sailors to a land named Mu-Lai-P’I (America). The document is mentioned in the publication titled The Khotan Amirs (1933). In 1310, King Abu Bakar of the Malian Empire spearheaded a series of sea voyages to the New World. In 1312, Mandingo Muslims arrived in the Gulf of Mexico for exploration of the American interior via the Mississippi River as their access route. These Mandingo Muslims were from Mali and other parts of West Africa. In 1527, a Moroccan Muslim named Estevanico of Azamor landed in Florida with the expedition of Panfilo de Narveaz and remained in America to become the first of three Americans to cross the continent in 1539. At least two states in the United States—Arizona and New Mexico—owe their beginnings to Estevanico. By 1530, more than 30 percent of the estimated ten million enslaved Africans brought to the Americas and the Caribbean were Muslims uprooted from the areas of Futa Jallon, Futa Toro and Massina, as well as other areas of West Africa governed from their capital Timbuktu. These Muslims became part of the backbone of the American economy of that time. In 1730, the enslaved African Muslim Ayyub Bin Sulaiman Jalloh from Boonda, Galumbo was set free by James Oglethorpe of Georgia and provided transportation to England. Three years later in 1735, Ayyub arrived home. In 1790, Moors from Spain were reported to be living in South Carolina and Florida (Ghazali, 2012). In 1807, the United States Congress prohibited the importation of enslaved Africans into America after January 1, 1808. An African Muslim called Yarrow Mamout was set free in Washington, DC and later became a shareholder of the second chartered bank of America. He lived to be more than 128 years old. There are two portraits of Yarrow: one painted by Charles W. Peale in 1819, when Yarrow was 100 years old, hangs in the Historical Society of Pennsylvania; the other done by James Simpson in 1826, almost a decade later, is on display in the Peabody Room at the Georgetown Public Library in Washington, DC. In 1809, an African Muslin named Omar ibn Said was enslaved in Charleston, South Carolina and imprisoned after running away. He was visited in prison by John Owen, who later became the Governor of North Carolina. Owen took Omar to Bladen County where he was placed on the Owen plantation and lived to be 100 years old. In 1828, Abdul Rahman Ibrahim Ibn Sori, an enslaved African in Charleston, South Carolina, was freed by the order of President John Quincy Adams and Secretary of State Henry Clay. Abdul Rahman was a prince when he was captured. He was referred to during his captivity in America as “Prince among Slaves.” A drawing of him by Henry Imman is on display at the Library of Congress in Washington, DC and his life has been well documented in books and films. In 1856, the United States cavalry hired the African Muslim Hajji Ali to experiment with raising camels in Arizona. 116 Journal of Islamic Studies and Culture, Vol. 3(2), December 2015 In 1889, noted scholar and Pan-African activist Edward Wilmot Blyden travelled throughout the Eastern and Southern parts of the United States lecturing about Islam. During his lecture before the Colonization Society of Chicago, Blyden asserted that the major reason Africans chose Islam over Christianity is that the Qur’an protected the Black man from self-depreciation in the presence of Arabs or Europeans (Ghazali, 2012). In 1913, Noble Drew Ali (born Timothy Drew) established the Moorish Science Temple of America (MSTA) in Newark, New Jersey. Drew Ali was commissioned by the Sultan of Morocco to teach Islam to African Americans. The MSTA is also responsible for many of today’s African American reverts to Islam. In 1926, Dues Muhammad Ali, mentor of Marcus Garvey and had considerable impact on his movement, established the Universal Islamic Society in Detroit, Michigan. The organization’s motto was “One God, One Imam, One Destiny.” In 1930, African American Muslims built the first mosque in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. In 1933, the Nation of Islam (NOI) was founded by Wallace Fard Muhammad (born Wallace Ford), a Muslim mystic who introduced the organization’s philosophy to the United States and disappeared in 1933. Elijah Muhammad (born Robert Poole) succeeded Wallace Fard and built the organization into a strong ethnic movement advocating Islam as a way of life. The NOI is one of the most well known organizations with imprints on United States history, as well as American Muslim history. It has been responsible for helping a large percentage of African Americans to revert to Islam and highlighting American Christians’ difficulties in combating the lingering effects of slavery and racism among African Americans. Two of the most famous African Americans— Alhaji Malik al-Shabazz or Malcolm X (born Malcolm Little) and Muhammad Ali (born Cassius Clay)—were early adherents of NOI, but both of them later embraced the broader multiethnic concepts of mainstream Islam (Ghazali, 2012). Other writers have also provided very important research findings on early African Muslim influences in the Caribbean and the Americas. For instance, the United Islamic Association (2009) recounts that in the Caribbean, the Mandingo and Fulani Muslims from West Africa remained very devout, in spite of the harsh and inhumane conditions under which they were forced to work and live. In the face of intense anti-Islamic propaganda, these Muslims held strongly to their faith and died as Muslims. Their children, however, were not as lucky, as they were brutally taken away from their parents and given over to the custody of other European slavers who baptized and raised them in their Christian faith. The inhuman disintegration of the enslaved Muslims’ family structure was the most potent weapon the European slavers employed to ensure that the offspring of their enslaved Muslims would be robbed of their Islamic heritage (United Islamic Association, 2009). Also, Richard Brent Turner (2010) reveals that about 15 percent of the enslaved population in North America in the 18th and 19th Centuries was comprised of urban-ruling elite from West Africa. The ancient Black Islamic kingdoms in Ghana, Mali, and Songhai served as their religious and ethnic roots. By writing in Arabic, fasting during the month of Ramadan, praying five times a day, wearing Muslim clothing, and writing and reciting the Qur’an, some of the enslaved West African Muslims brought the first mainstream Islamic beliefs and practices to America (Turner, 2010). Turner notes that Georgia Sea Islander Bilal is a fascinating portrait of an enslaved West African Muslim who retained mainstream Islamic practices in the United States. Bilal was among at least 20 Black Muslims in Sapelo Island and St. Simons Island reported to have lived and practiced Islam during the antebellum era. Due to the relative isolation from Euro-American influences, the Georgia Sea Islands provided the opportunity to retain mainstream Islamic practices. Bilal was known for his devotion, Muslim clothing, Muslim name, and ability to speak and write Arabic. It is suggested that he might have been the leader of a small local Black Muslim community. His descendants retained Islamic traditions for at least three generations. But by the end of the Civil War, the old Islam of the enslaved West Africans was virtually wiped out, as these Muslims were unable to develop their community institutions in order to continue their religion. Their version of Islam, which was African American, private, and with mainstream and heterodox practices, vanished as they died (Turner, 2010). According to Turner, the political framework for Islam’s appeal to African Americans was ushered in the late 19th and early 20th Centuries by the Pan-Africanist ideas of Edward Wilmot Blyden (1832-1912) when he critiqued Christianity for its racism and suggested Islam as a viable alternative faith. Moreover, the rise of African American mainstream communities from the 1920s to the 1940s was propelled by the internationalist perspective of Marcus Garvey’s Universal Negro Improvement Association and the Great Migration of more than one million African American southerners to northern and Midwestern cities during the First World War era. By providing African Americans with their first Qur’an, important Islamic literature and education, and linkages with the Islamic world, the Ahmadiyya Movement in Islam, a heterodox missionary community from India, provided an impetus for mainstream Islam in Black America (Turner, 2010). Abdul Karim Bangura 117 Also, Turner states that the Islamic Mission of America led by Shaykh Daoud Ahmed Faisal in New York and the First Mosque of Pittsburgh were the roots of Black Sunni Muslims in the United States in the early 20th Century. In 1924, Faisal, who was born in Morocco and came to the United States from Grenada, established the Islamic Mission of America, also known as the State Street Mosque, in New York City. He was influenced by the Muslim migrant communities; Muslim sailors from Yemen, Somalia, and Madagascar; and the Ahmadi translation of the Qur’an. The mission he founded served as the first African American mainstream community in the United States (Turner, 2010). In addition, Turner mentions that Faisal’s wife, “Mother” Khadijah Faisal, whose background was Pakistani Muslim and Black Caribbean, became the president of the Muslim Ladies Cultural Society. The mission published its own literature, including a Muslim journal for women named Sahabiyat. In the 1920s and 1930s, the mission spread mainstream practices among Black Muslims on the East Coast and continued to have a significant influence among African American Sunni Muslims throughout the 20th Century (Turner, 2010). Furthermore, according to Turner, African American Muslims who desired to spread the teachings of Islam established the First Mosque of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania in 1945, built other mosques, established the Jumu’a prayer in their community, assisted its members in times of grief and hardship, and aligned themselves with other Muslim communities across the country. The emergence of this mainstream community was the result of a spiritual metamorphosis after its earlier connections with the heterodox philosophies of the Moorish Science Temple and the Ahmadiyya. In the 1950s, the First Mosque of Pittsburgh issued sub-charters to African American Sunni communities in several other cities and established Young Muslim Women’s and Young Muslim Men’s Association which provided social services to the community (Turner, 2010). Finally, Turner points out that in addition to the two African American communities, there is also strong evidence of the existence of a vibrant multi-racial mainstream Islamic community that included African American, continental African, Turkish, Polish, Lithuanian, Russian, Indian, Albanian, Arab, Persian, and Caribbean peoples in New York in the early 20th Century. But he notes that “this multi-racial model, which also developed among Sunni Muslims in the mid-western United States, does not suggest a race and color-blind community experience, as immigrant Muslims were noted for their ethnic, racial, and linguistic separation from African American Muslims during this period” (Turner, 2010). Overshadowed by the successful missionary work of the Ahmadiyya and later by the ascendancy of the Nation of Islam in the 1950s, the African American Sunni Muslim community did not become a popular option for African American Muslims until the 1960s (Turner, 2010). In addition, Abdul Wahid Hamid (2010) retells the story of the Mandingo Muslims of Trinidad, with a greater focus on Muhammad Sesei (1788-1838). According to Hamid, the first Muslims to arrive in Trinidad were from West Africa. These Muslims were forced by the European slave plantation system to either observe their religion privately of renounce it completely. There was a thriving Muslim community in Port of Spain led by Yunus (Jonas) Muhammad Bath up till the early 19th Century. The size of the community increased during the Napoleonic wars by Africans who had served in the British West Indian Regiment. Most of these Africans were settled in Port of Spain and some were given lands in Manzanilla in the north east of Trinidad after they were disbanded from the regiment. Those in Port of Spain failed in their petition to the British to be returned to Africa. Muhammad Sisei, however, did succeed in returning to Africa by way of England (Hamid, 2010). Born in Niyani-Maru, a village on the north bend of the River Gambia, in about 1788 or 1790, Sisei descended from the Mandingo in the area, the majority of who were Muslims. His father was named Abu Bakar after the first Caliph or successor to Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) and his mother was called Ayisha after the Prophet’s wife (may God be pleased with her; henceforth, MGBPWH). Sisei was sent some distance away to Dar Salami (Dasilami), which was one of the centers of Islamic learning in The Gambia at the time, at the age of eight. While at Dar Salami, Sisei learned to read and write Arabic and studied the Qur’an. Writing at the center was done on paper, which was of high value to Muslims—an important point, as literacy has been one of the greatest gifts of Islam to Africa and many other parts of the world. Sisei stayed at the school for eight years and returned to his hometown at the age 16 around 1804 (Hamid, 2010).