The advocacy, agency and competency of women activists participating in the Australian environmental movement By © Yulia Maleta, 2014 B.A. (Hons) A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) degree (Social Sciences) in School of Social Sciences and Psychology, University of Western Sydney November 2014 i Acknowledgements I acknowledge the contribution of the Australian women salaried and volunteer environmental activists whose voluntary participation has made this PhD research thesis possible. I enjoyed conducting interviews with the women members of grassroots organisations, eNGOs, the Greens party and academic institutions. As an environmental advocate, I learned about the movement and women’s integral role. I note the professional guidance and encouraging support of my thesis supervisors, Assoc. Prof. Mary Hawkins and Assoc. Prof. Rosemary Leonard, of the School of Social Sciences and Psychology (SSAP), University of Western Sydney, NSW, Australia. My supervisors worked closely with my over the years and contributed to my progress and development. The School of Social Sciences and Psychology should also be noted for their support in my research and writing as well as funding of conferences and events. In particular, I note the support of Kerry Robinson, Michael Darcy, Vicki Fox, Assoc. Prof. Debbie Horsfall, Sharyn McGee, Sue Veen and Leigh Bambury. I also note the support of postgraduate members: Miriam Hynes, Oishee Alam, and Rosemary Bowman. In addition, I acknowledge Dr Marie Fellbaum-Korpi, Coordinator of the University of Western Sydney’s Higher Degree Writing Circle. The postgraduate member’s critiques in the Circle were of immeasurable support to my writing development. Further, I acknowledge the intellectual guidance of ecofeminist academic, Ariel Salleh. I also acknowledge the support of Blacktown City Council in conference events. ii Statement of Authentication The work presented in this thesis is, to the best of my knowledge and belief, original except as acknowledged in the text. I hereby declare that I have not submitted this material, either in full or in part, for a degree at this or any other institution. _______YMaleta__________________________________ iii TABLE OF CONTENTS TITLE PAGE ................................................................................................................................... i ACKNOWLEDGMENTS .............................................................................................................. ii STATEMENT OF AUTHENTICATION ..................................................................................... iii TABLE OF CONTENTS ............................................................................................................... iv ABBREVIATIONS ........................................................................................................................ v ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................................... vi INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW TO THESIS ................................................................ 1 CHAPTER ONE. An insight to ecofeminism, patriarchal practices and women’s activism within environmental organisations ............................................................................... 15 CHAPTER TWO. Capturing a masculinist culture of work and gender performativity ............................................................................................................................... 55 CHAPTER THREE. Considering the theoretical and practical implications of agency and competency in the context of women’s environmental activism ........................................... 94 CHAPTER FOUR. Methodology and Methods ....................................................................... 135 CHAPTER FIVE. Agency and competency in the context of women’s environmental activism ....................................................................................................................................... 164 CHAPTER SIX. The gendered nature of the elite: ‘the boys club’ and leadership styles ......................................................................................................................................... 203 CHAPTER SEVEN. Maternal Identity and the ‘role of mother’ within professional and grassroots environmental advocacy ..................................................................................... 240 CHAPTER EIGHT. Conclusion to Thesis ............................................................................... 275 REFERENCES .......................................................................................................................... 304 Appendix 1. Biographies and Sociological Snapshots: An Introduction to my participants .................................................................................................................................. 349 Appendix 2. Sample of Interview Questions ............................................................................. 365 Appendix 3. Recruitment flyer ................................................................................................... 368 iv Abbreviations Bar: Barrister’s court CALD: Culturally And Linguistically Diverse backgrounds CO : Carbon dioxide 2 EEO: Equal Employment Opportunity eNGO: Environmentalist Nongovernmental Organisation ENSM: Environmentalist New Social Movement GGCA: Global Gender and Climate Alliance glocal: global and local INGOs: International Nongovernmental Organisations LFP: Labour-Force Participation LGAs: Local Government Authorities NGO: Nongovernmental Organisation NSM: New Social Movement OAM: Order of Australia, Medal of PAR: Participatory Action Research TNCs: Transnational Companies v Abstract This feminist sociocultural thesis links theory to practice in its exploration of the gendered roles and work-based identities of women activists participating in the Australian environmental movement. Drawing upon 31 interviews from my qualitative analysis with women working in grassroots organisations, eNGOs, Greens parties, and academia, I investigate participants agency and competency and their ambitions for environmental reforms. Three major areas of intellectual context are women’s activism, gender performativity, and, agency and competency in environmental advocacy. I argue that gender is an active performance, in how women’s experiences are informed by social relations of power and the negotiation of masculinity and femininity (Butler 1990, 2006; Phillips & Knowles 2012). Feminist, ecofeminist and social/environmental movement studies contextualise the struggles and achievements of women, and such theory provides a lens to my empirical analysis. My goal is to investigate the extent to which the women in my research recognise the patriarchal control of their organisations and also the social elites in governance and industry (Plumwood 1997; Leahy 2003; Cockburn 2012). Gender barriers, in the form of the sexual division of labour and glass ceilings, entail challenges for women’s status in the workplace (Mellor 1997; Connell 2009; Mellor 2009, 2012). Within a social hierarchy, the agency and competency of my participants is evidenced through their negotiation of masculinity and femininity as well as strategies of resistance and accommodation towards male power and labels. My qualitative findings reveal contradictions and insights. Women identify with emphasized and resistant forms of femininity. Core insights from my data-driven analysis are ‘the boys club’, token women and maternal identity in environmental activism. A contradiction was that some participants reject feminist labels, yet gender differences were found across the results. My accounts further illustrate that activism, age and culture can be more of a barrier than gender. This thesis adds knowledge to areas of feminism, qualitative studies and movement scholarship. Thus, my research highlights the activist strategies of women environmentalists across paid and unpaid sectors, and pinpoints feminist and environmental issues that link theory to practice. Keywords: feminist/ecofeminist, grassroots, professional, ‘boys club’, token women, maternal ‘nurturing’ identity vi ~ 1 ~ Introduction and Overview to Thesis Introduction This feminist sociocultural qualitative constructivist thesis explores the agency and competency of Australian women salaried and voluntary activists participating in grassroots organisations, eNGOs, Greens parties, and academia. I argue that women perform gender in their active negotiation of masculinity and femininity. This involves performances of resistant and emphasized femininities. I develop the theoretical position that women experience gender as a barrier and an enabler. Feminist, ecofeminist and social movement theory, along with a specific feminist lens on my empirical results, support this position. In relation to theory and practice, a complex gendered culture of work, influenced by dominant notions of masculinity and male values, entails a barrier towards full female participation in the workforce. A masculinist culture is evidenced through gender differences along with women’s struggle to achieve work/life balances. This is evidenced by the women recognise masculinist elites in their organisations and in governance and industry. In my results, data-driven insights into ‘the boys club’ and women as token members on climate panels illustrates a sexual division of labour and glass ceilings in place. Although women encounter labels of female incompetency, they demonstrate merit and prowess. In turn, their agency and competency challenges the patriarchal control of organisations, and also the dominance of social elites in industry. Participants’ empowerment relates to the way gender is an active process of doing masculinity and femininity. I argue that when women exercise power and resist labels, they are also challenging male power and masculinist practices. Women’s agency and competency therefore represents a threat to ruling elites and dominant notions of hegemonic masculinity. Further, women environmentalists are participating in an organisational context and through their working roles, they are also contributing to the women’s and environmental movements. However, I am aware of reproducing labels and stereotypes. I consider that women who join the environmental movement may be influenced by feminism yet my participant’s may not solely define themselves by gender. As there is no previous research on women’s agency and competency in either the salaried or the grassroots capacities of environmental activism: this research addresses this gap and makes a valid contribution to both feminism and ~ 2 ~ environmentalism. This thesis presents a claim to truth, and is not necessarily ‘the truth’ per say. In relation to my interview accounts, this thesis provides evidence to what activists are doing and what they claim is the truth. I have accumulated evidence on how women participants’ see their activist practice in relation to gender, and these examples contextualise the focus of my thesis. Hence, my claim to knowledge is articulated through the views of these women activists in light of their experiences in everyday as well as organisational contexts. Background to study How important is the issue of the environment? The Australian environmental movement, in particular the Climate- Sustainability movement, is a topic of intellectual significance in relation to the numerous professional and grassroots advocacy organisations advocating social change and environmental justice. Markedly, the social and natural world is in a dire state due to human induced climate changes as well as natural and man-made disasters that have catastrophic impacts on human and nonhuman species (Caldicott 1996, 2006, 2009; Healey 2009a & b; Isla 2009; Spitzner 2009; Irwin 2010). In Australia, wild bushfires, extreme temperatures, flood epidemics and cyclones, indicate that human beings are vulnerable yet also responsible for their immediate environment (Shiva 1993, 2005, 2008; Maleta 2009; Spratt & Sutton 2009). Such incidents occur globally, and ‘we’ hu(mans) are located in an advantageous position to respond to it. A global to local activist engagement is therefore required. As an academic environmental activist, I endeavour to identify the gendered and environmentalist experiences of participants within everyday life contexts, and to consider what is being addressed and what is yet to be addressed. Why is gender relevant to this debate? Women around the world play a strong leadership role within the politics of gender and the environment, especially in grassroots action groups (Warren 1999; MacGregor 2001; Glazebrook 2005; Alston 2011). However, research and policies indicate gender gaps (MacGregor 2010, 2014). Surveys show that women and men perceive social and environmental risks differently, and that women are disproportionately under-represented in executive leadership positions (Spitzner ~ 3 ~ 2009:218-19). For example, women view market-based international climate policies less positively than men. Spitzner notes that women are under-represented in all political and economic decision-making bodies (2009:220). Research shows that decisions in the policy arena are designed in a totally man-made way (Spitzner 2009:223). For example, Spitzner contends that the UN Climate Change Convention and the Kyoto Protocol make no reference to international agreements on social justice and the empowerment of women (2009: 220). Within glocal contexts, women are under-represented in all political and economic decision-making bodies (Spitzner 2009: 220). The corporate sector ‘directed largely by suited men in the global North and their followers in the global South, spend billions on public moneys on ‘cooperation’ and on public relations, mystifying politicians and communities alike as to the science of climate change’ (Spitzner 2009: 225). Spitzner argues that policies must recognise gender as a structural hierarchy and acknowledge the differing situations of women and men- their needs, opportunities and goals (2009: 225). Further, a monitoring system is needed at national and international levels to ensure a universal integration of the gender perspective (Spitzner 2009:226). Addressing gender gaps in climate policy and everyday life In regard to gender gaps, the 2007 IPCC Fourth Assessment report on Climate Change identified the gendered aspects of vulnerability and adaptive capacity. Empirical research has shown that experiences of climate change are experienced differently along the lines of age, ethnicity, class, religion and gender (Cutter 1995; Denton 2002; Enarson 2002; cited in Climate Change 2007, IPCC Fourth Assessment report). Climate change therefore has gender-specific implications in terms of vulnerability and adaptive capacity (Dankelman 2002). Gender differences reflect wider patterns of structural gender inequality. This suggests that women are worse off than men in relation to being able to cope effectively in their domestic environs when a climate-related disaster occurs. However, a prospective shift in policy towards more proactive capacity building can help reduce inequality (Climate Change 2007, IPCC Fourth Assessment report). Yet, I contend that glocal climate policy is male-centric, whereby women, the poor and ethnic minorities are marginalised. Hence, a gender differentiated responsibility is yet to be realised. ~ 4 ~ Leading international organisational bodies that aim to address gender inequality as well as climate reforms are GenderCC, Global Gender and Climate Alliance (GGCA) and the World Health Organization (WHO). These organisations include salaried and voluntary women members advocating gender and environmental justice. For example, GenderCC is a climate justice global network of women activists and experts working for gender and climate justice. GenderCC adheres to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) (GenderCC homepage, 2013). The GGCA aims to integrate a gender perspective into policy and decision-making to ensure international mandates and legal instruments on gender equality are implemented (GGCA homepage, 2013). In addition, the World Health Organization (WHO) provides a framework to strengthen support to Member States in developing health risk assessments and climate policy interventions that are beneficial to women (WHO, Gender, 2013). Overarching organisational bodies, like GenderCC and WHO, play a significant role in addressing policy reforms on gender and climate issues in diverse glocal contexts. A personal account of environmental activism This project is strengthened by my grassroots and professional activism in the environmental movement. I am a member of grassroots and professional environmental organisations. Academic organisational membership includes the Environmental Institute of Australia and New Zealand (EIANZ), Ecology Society of Australia (ESA) and the Sustainability Collective at the University of Western Sydney. Ecofeminist organisation membership includes 1 Million Women network and the Women Environmental Network of Australia (WENA). Grassroots organisation membership includes Parramatta Climate Change Action Network (CAN) and Climate Action Network Australia (CANA), of which ParraCAN is affiliated. As a ParraCAN volunteer, campaigns include lobbying the government and educating the community to take action on climate change. Notably, I adopt a peaceful approach in my climate change activism. Research context My previous research with Australian women voluntary rural firefighters identified their agency and competency through a coordinated strategy of teamwork,