The ADDIE Model an Instructional Generic Design Model Strategy and Tactics of Task Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2 The ‘Design’ Phase of the ADDIE Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10 Developing Assessments of Trainee Proficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .22 Strategy and Tactics for Pilot Implementation in the ADDIE Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .30 Strategy and Tactics of Training Recordkeeping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .38 Formative Evaluation in the ADDIE Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .47 Final Implementation of the Training Module . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .55 About the Author Gordon Welty, Ph.D. has been designing, developing, facilitating, evaluating, and managing technical and regulatory training programs in the healthcare and pharmaceutical industries for more than 20 years. He is a member of the Journal of GXP Compliance’s Editorial Advisory Board. Contact Gordon at [email protected]. BONUS ARTICLE: Suggestions for Better Training Reports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .66 About the Author David Jones is a GMP specialist with 13 years of experience assisting pharmaceutical and medical device manufacturers with training, audits and quality system improvement. He formerly provided a training module to more than 300 FDA field personnel to introduce them to the concept of quality system audits. David worked for 20 years for the A. H. Robins Company (since acquired by Wyeth) in various roles including business unit and division management. He can be reached via email at [email protected] or by telephone at 804 350 5410. Gordon Welty, Ph.D. Strategy and Tactics of Task Analysis tion. Should problems be identified with the facility or the Task analysis is the process of defining the discrete steps, or tasks organization, the typical remedy would not be training – it that, when executed, will ensure the effective and efficient perfor- would either be a problem-specific (safety, environmental, mance of a job. Careful task analysis can add substantial value to an organization’s training courseware. etc.) corrective action2 or it would be an organizational de- velopment (OD) initiative.3 The organization and its facil- ity are important for the analysis of training needs because INTRODUCTION they situate employees and the tasks they are to perform. This article reviews the place of task analysis in the process The facility and organization can have a profound impact of developing a standard operating procedure (SOP) and on training needs and training effectiveness.4 the subsequent training module. Task analysis is the process In considering the required attributes of the employee of defining the discrete steps, or tasks that, when executed, within the organization, we consider the skill-set and the will ensure the effective and efficient performance of a job. employee’s disposition. The skill-set is encompassed by the We look initially at strategic issues and then review some employee’s curriculum and training plan, which indicate tactical concerns. First, we will consider the strategic re- the employee’s completed training as well as competencies lationship between the analysis of training needs and task and qualifications. The dispositions include the employee’s analysis; then we will examine how task analysis fits into personality, insofar as it impacts on work-related attitudes, the ADDIE model of instructional design. ADDIE is the ac- which contribute in turn to motivations and, ultimately, ronym of a generic instructional design model, comprised behaviors. Two different and important motivations are an of the following: Analyze, Design, Develop, Implement, and employee’s motivation to participate in the company’s estab- Evaluate. Turning next to tactical matters, we will review lished training program, and his or her motivation to trans- how an instructional designer plans and prepares for a task fer the training to the job.5 The conjunction of skills and analysis, undertakes a task analysis, identifies best practices, dispositions situated in a particular facility and organization completes the task analysis, and incorporates the data into a creates the employee’s workplace performance. procedure. Throughout, we will pay special attention to the Finally, our analysis of training needs focuses upon the importance of standards in any SOP.1 task. The task includes its component steps; the task itself is included in a larger process within a sequence of tasks. Analysis of Training Needs Of critical importance in an analysis of the task are the stan- When we analyze training needs, we typically look at four dards that define the acceptable levels of task performance, levels of analysis: the organization, its facility, the employee, those levels that will allow the organization to attain its de- and the task. The organization includes organizational struc- sired outcomes.6 ture, business case, and supervisory factors; it also includes the employee’s compensation and upward mobility. The fa- Task Analysis and Performance Gaps cility of the organization includes such specifics as working Careful task analysis can add substantial value to an conditions, workplace hazards, and utilities. The organiza- organization’s training courseware. The purpose of course- tion and its facility are situational levels – they impact on ware – learning management system (LMS) software, struc- training needs, but are not the object of training interven- tured on-the-job training (SOJT) module, etc. – is to close  SPECIAL EDITION: The ADDIE Model, and Instructional Generic Design Model Gordon Welty, Ph.D. a performance gap for some group of employees. The term of the courseware. If the evaluation shows that the training performance gap means that employee performance does module has shortcomings, for example, that the sequence not meet some standard. of learning tasks is incomplete, those shortcomings are Standards provide guidance for tasks and processes with- fed back to the author(s) of the courseware to be analyzed in manufacturing and quality control lab systems, as well as again. Further design and development efforts follow, un- in clinical operations, Quality Assurance (QA), biometrics, til the courseware meets the organization’s needs. Thus, and pharmacovigilance. As a result of task analysis, best the ADDIE model has an evident affinity with the DMAIC practices are identified, and can be mandated as standards. (Define, Measure, Analyze, Improve, Control)8 cycle of Six These standards may be documented in procedures, pro- Sigma improvement efforts. tocols, manufacturing orders, packaging orders, etc. For It is important to stress that the iterations within the AD- example, if a manufacturing order in the pharmaceutical DIE model continue until management decides that organi- industry stipulates that tablet thickness should be X mm, zational needs have been met. More generally, any relaxation the pressing cylinder height parameter of an appropriately or deviation from the ADDIE model, such as a “satisficing” qualified Fette Tablet Press is set to that standard. For brev- level of performance9 or the skipping of a phase, are man- ity sake, all of these types of documents will be called stan- agement decisions. These decisions can take the form of cri- dard operating procedures (SOPs).7 teria established before a project is initiated (e.g., a stopping An SOP stipulates standards – and promotes consistent rule) or while the project is underway (e.g., “That product practice – for task performance. Once these standards are has been refined enough.”)10 specified, it is possible to identify a performance gap, the The initial phase of the ADDIE model, the Analysis phase, difference between existing employee performance and the refers to the analysis of four aspects of the process that will be standard required by the SOP. Courseware can then be de- addressed by the courseware, be it a manufacturing facility, signed to address the performance gap. Quality Control (QC) lab, clinical operation, or drug safety Before the courseware has even entered the developmen- process. These are the analysis of the facility or context, the tal process, the data derived from task analysis can be used analysis of the organization, the analysis of an employee’s to revise and improve the SOP that is the basis of the train- skill-set and disposition, and the analysis of the task. These ing. Thoroughgoing task analysis will, of course, add to four aspects – facility, organization, employee skills and the overall cost of developing the SOP and the subsequent disposition, and task – are to be analyzed to identify the courseware, but it is a cost that is well worth incurring, be- sequence of tasks, the sum total of the process, which will cause the cost of quality training will be offset in fewer er- lead to the outcomes that the organization desires. rors on the manufacturing floor. A process is a systematically organized set of inputs, tasks or activities, outputs and standards – that pertain to, and control, the inputs, tasks, and outputs.11 There are several TASK ANALYSIS AND THE ADDIE MODEL different types of processes. The ADDIE model is a generic instructional design model. The manufacturing or lab process may be a person-to- It provides guidance at a fairly high level for instructional equipment (or instrument) process, a person-to-paper designers, software engineers, etc., as they author and re- process, or a person-to-person process; it may be some vise courseware. As we have noted above, the elements or combination of the three types. An example of a person- phases of the ADDIE model are Analyze, Design, Develop, to-equipment process would be a technician calibrating an Implement, and Evaluate. These elements are sequential instrument; a person-to-paper process would be a techni- – each element depends upon the successful completion of cian recording the as-found and as-left data from a given the preceding phase. calibration on the appropriate log; a person-to-person pro- Moreover, the ADDIE model is an iterative feedback cess would be a line supervisor who is responsible to im- model, which means that the results of the Evaluation phase mediately inform a technician when an instrument is avail- are fed back, closing the loop, facilitating further refinement able for calibration. For each of these types of process, the SPECIAL EDITION: The ADDIE Model, and Instructional Generic Design Model  Gordon Welty, Ph.D. standards are captured in a document. Develop Project Plan An SOP documents the standards and tasks that make The first step is to develop the project plan for the task anal- up a process.12 A well-formatted SOP facilitates correct task ysis. The project plan delineates the process to be analyzed, performance and consistent practice. It has a column identi- including its boundaries; the participants, including their fying personnel or positions that are responsible for tasks, a levels of expertise, their responsibilities; and the intended correlative “activities” column indicating the tasks and their outcomes of the task analysis; i.e., the expectations the par- sequence, as well as the standards that define the satisfac- ticipants will have, stated in terms of behavioral objectives tory completion of the tasks. Once standards are specified, or S.M.A.R.T. (Specific, Measurable, Achievable, Relevant, the performance gap between existing employee perfor- and Time-based) objectives. mance and that required by the SOP can be addressed. The Suppose, for example, the process to be documented was courseware can then be designed to close the performance the manufacture of a petrolatum/wax-based topical oint- gap; this remediation activity begins in the Design phase of ment, with active ingredient X. The boundaries of the pro- the ADDIE model. cess would be Dispensing, on the input-side, and Distribu- The question at this point is, How do we winnow through tion Center, on the output-side. a number of possible standards and tasks to settle upon the For this illustration, the participants would be SMEs who best practices for that process, and then document those manufacture the ointment; their responsibilities in the task best practices?13 How do we write good SOPs? analysis include identifying relevant documents, generating a list of tasks, identifying the responsible parties, etc. For the illustrative process, the outcomes might include: TACTICS OF TASK ANALYSIS identify relevant procedures and manufacturing orders, Clearly, we must analyze the tasks before we can document develop a list of tasks (e.g., obtain raw materials, set up the tasks. Hence, task analysis comes first; a good SOP de- equipment, clean and sanitize, prepare excipients, load pends upon a good task analysis. Several questions about excipients, load active ingredient, mix according to pro- methods must be addressed before a facilitator can under- cess parameters, transfer to holding tank, obtain product take a task analysis. How does the author structure the task samples, fill tubes, seal tubes, inspect, package and store analysis – will an informal approach or a more formal ap- product, etc.), develop criteria and protocols for identifying proach be employed? How will the author collect the data responsible parties, and so forth. on tasks? There are several options – operator behavior can The finalized project plan has several uses. It will help be directly observed, critical incidents can be reviewed (a to make the business case for the task analysis, direct the case-study approach), questionnaires can be developed review of existing documentation, communicate with the (and, if so, can be distributed to various employees); ex- participants – the SMEs – and help to ensure the continuing perts can be interviewed, etc. In this article, we will focus focus of the on-going task analysis. our attention on a less formal approach, involving the in- terview of experts. This approach is broadly applicable and Identify Subject Matter Experts relatively inexpensive. The second step is to identify the SMEs. The author of the SOP is not necessarily the expert, or even an expert, on the There are a dozen steps to task analysis; we will discuss each in process to be documented. There may be several employees turn.14 As with any well-planned project, we must first determine who are SMEs on this process. It is important to identify the scope of the task analysis. Once the scope is determined, these SMEs, and to get the agreement of management, busi- employees who are experts in the task (called Subject Matter ness owners, and other experts on the list of SMEs. Experts, SMEs) are identified and contacted. Then, existing docu- mentation is reviewed; this prevents duplication of effort. Finally, Among the criteria for identifying SMEs, the sum of their the task analysis session is scheduled. These elements are the expertise should be comprehensive – it should cover the responsibility of the author of the SOP or courseware, the facilita- whole manufacturing or lab process that falls within the tor of the task analysis session. scope.15 It is important to select several SMEs, to ensure  SPECIAL EDITION: The ADDIE Model, and Instructional Generic Design Model Gordon Welty, Ph.D. that a range (and perhaps variability) of expert opinion is From this point, as we undertake the task analysis session, the included. Moreover, there are several levels of expertise that SMEs must be readied. Next, the tasks included within the process must be identified; also task responsibilities must be identified. should be represented – task analysis relates to proficiency Then the tasks must be chunked and labeled to reflect the busi- at the task or sub-task level, while domain expertise relates ness process, and the business order must be established within to more comprehensive proficiency – the “big picture,” if and across chunks. Last, concepts need to be identified for each you will.16 Also, a number of SMEs will make it more likely chunk. that the industrial safety, environmental, regulatory, quality assurance, and cultural aspects of the process are covered in the task analysis. And they should be covered! Once the Prepare SMEs for Task Analysis SMEs have been identified, the list of invitees needs man- When getting the SMEs ready for the task analysis session, agement approval. it is important to remember that they are the key source of information for documenting the process into an SOP. Treat Review Existing Documentation them right!17 Make the SMEs comfortable with the agenda, The third step is the review of existing documentation. The the room, and the building. Locate the restrooms, water project plan of the task analysis will raise several questions, fountains, etc. Review the Emergency Response Plan and including: Was there a prior version of the SOP? Are there evacuation routes. Discuss the project plan with them, and similar SOPs with the same tasks and/or concepts? Are there then finalize it. pre-existing task analyses that can be utilized? Sometimes the author of the SOP, or management, will Identify Tasks in Terms of Outcomes suggest that the SOP can simply be a revision of the prior Next, prepare the SMEs to identify the tasks in terms of version, with no explicit task analysis. “Clean it up – add a the outcomes. This involves distinguishing between steps, few steps here, delete a few steps there.” This is the “liter- tasks, and processes. A step is a discrete action (e.g., throw ary” approach to writing an SOP, which runs the risk that a switch). A task is a set of steps that achieve a specific out- the successively cloned versions of the SOP will take on a come (e.g., shut down the tablet press). A process is a set of life of their own, taking a tangent that becomes ever more tasks that achieve a more general outcome (e.g., produce a distant from the tasks and process they are intended to doc- batch of topical ointment). Once these have been clarified, ument. This literary approach is sometimes called “writing the SMEs can begin to identify tasks.18 a procedure without leaving one’s desk.” It is not recom- As the group identifies and lists tasks, bear in mind the mended – it is a major source of bad procedures. role of the facilitator of this task analysis session. Facilita- Prior versions of a procedure should be reviewed as a pre- tors should focus on getting information from the SMEs paratory step in a task analysis, not as an alternative to the rather than contributing themselves. The facilitator should task analysis. The key source of information for document- provide direction as well; the session should focus on tasks, ing the process is the SMEs who work within the process all not processes. The SMEs should, at a minimum, provide the time, not a prior version of the SOP. action verbs and a direct object for each task statement.19 As SMEs identify tasks, begin to map out the process. Encour- Schedule Task Analysis age the SMEs to review and correct the process map as the The fourth step is to schedule the task analysis session. This group proceeds; at this stage the process map is a work-in- includes developing the agenda, sending invitations to the progress. SMEs, reserving the room, and assembling all materials for the session. Identify Task Responsibilities Ask the SMEs to begin to identify task responsibilities. To this point, we have specified the scope of the task analysis; we Which employee or position is responsible for each task? have identified and contacted the SMEs; we have reviewed existing Be alert for ambiguous responsibilities – there can be no documentation; and we have scheduled the task analysis session. Now we are ready to undertake the task analysis session. task without a unique, responsible party. If it appears that SPECIAL EDITION: The ADDIE Model, and Instructional Generic Design Model  Gordon Welty, Ph.D. a task has no responsible employee, or has a number of groups. (This may be another signal that there are multiple responsible employees, it is unlikely that the SMEs will be SOPs involved.) able to resolve the issue. Each ambiguity should be noted for later resolution by management. There may be a need Identify “Chunk” Concepts to add “swim lanes” to the process map to distinguish the Finally, identify concepts for each chunk. Tasks describe various responsibilities and collaborations. how to do something; concepts provide the science for task Be alert for disproportional task responsibilities. If a po- performance. For example, “Completing the documentation sition has only one responsibility in a lengthy procedure, of the log” might be conceptualized as “Making the calibra- this may signal that the task should be moved entirely to tion process ‘Audit Proof’,” ensuring that there is a complete another SOP. For instance, the task responsibilities of end audit trail for every calibration. users, data managers, and system administrators in a typi- cal database SOP are quite disproportionate. End users log To this point, we have prepared the SMEs for the task analysis; we on, maintain the integrity of passwords, navigate the ap- have identified the tasks related to the scope; we have identified plication, query, print pre-formatted reports, call the help the responsible party for each task; we have chunked and labeled desk with problems, and log off. In addition to these tasks, the tasks to reflect the business process; we have established the business order within and across the chunks; and last, we have data managers enter, edit, and verify data, change fields, identified concepts for each chunk. Now we are ready to complete print customized reports, etc. In addition to all these tasks, the task analysis. system administrators maintain security, allocate rights, etc. Rather than including all these tasks in a single lengthy “Da- tabase SOP,” it is preferable to have several shorter proce- From this point, a draft process map will be prepared that includes dures, one for each user group. The training implications the tasks, chunks, and concepts. Next, we will highlight best prac- are less formidable, and the possibility exists of consolidat- tices by means of a peer review of the draft process map by the SMEs (perhaps a subset) or other experts. Next, we challenge the ing SOPs, for instance an “End user SOP” for a number of draft process map on the floor or in the lab, to stress its real-world applications. applicability. Finally, we revise the process map in light of these In any case, identifying task responsibilities will prove critical inputs. useful for a preliminary training audience list of employees who must be trained on this SOP. Draft Process Map “Chunk” and Label Tasks The tenth step is to complete the draft of the process map. When the task analysis session is underway, begin to chunk Start at a high level and work down, in an iterative fash- and label the tasks to reflect the business process. Ask ion, to the desired level of detail. Be sure to include the whether the tasks can be aggregated. For example, “Sign the beginning and the end of the process; check back to the calibration log,” “Date the calibration log,” and “Have super- scope statement. Do not include anything that is outside vision review the log” might be aggregated as “Complete the the scope. Keep a relatively uniform level of detail; do not documentation of the log.” At this stage of the task analysis, have some aspects of the process mapped out in great detail, it is important to chunk from the employees’ perspective; and other aspects merely sketched. Step back from the map, use audience-focused words. Labels provide a rationale for as you are drafting it, to review its overall appearance, its the chunks. Aim for about seven tasks per chunk. Be alert coherence. for the need to map subtasks, as well as decision points (and associated decision criteria), strategies, etc. Submit Process Map to Peer Review Also, establish the business order for the chunks. What When the draft is ready, submit it to a peer review by some is the flow within the process? If a clear logical order is not or all the SMEs, other experts, or the business owner. On the available, use a generic order. If a single order is not pos- positive side, the reviewers should look for best practices, sible, establish a unique order for each of the main user value-adding steps, flexibility in light of changing demands,  SPECIAL EDITION: The ADDIE Model, and Instructional Generic Design Model Gordon Welty, Ph.D. Figure 1: Illustrative task analysis of the steps and sub-steps involved in copying a document on a photocopier.20 1. Prepare photocopier • 1.1. Switch on machine • 1.2. Wait for warm-up cycle to be completed 2. Select desired number of copies 3. Prepare first page of original for copying • 3.1. Raise lid • 3.2. Locate page in appropriate position on the glass • 3.3. Close lid 4. Activate copying cycle • 4.1. Press start switch • 4.2. Ensure that the original does not move 5. Check quality of photocopy • 5.1. If OK, go to Step 6 • 5.2. If not OK, select appropriate corrective action • 5.2.1. Put in more copy paper • 5.2.2. Remove paper jam • 5.2.3. Readjust position of original • 5.2.4. Adjust toner setting 6. Remove copied original and replace with next page • 6.1. Raise lid • 6.2. Remove copied original • 6.3. Replace with next page to be copied • 6.4. Close lid 7. Repeat Steps 4-6 until all pages are copied 8. Remove last page of the original 9. Check that all pages have been copied satisfactorily 10. Switch off photocopier 11. Gather up all materials and depart SPECIAL EDITION: The ADDIE Model, and Instructional Generic Design Model  Gordon Welty, Ph.D. and scalability in light of changing output targets, etc. On out of task analysis. At a strategic level, we have examined the negative side, they should look for bottlenecks in the the relationship between the analysis of training needs and process, duplication of effort, unnecessary steps or tasks, task analysis. Then, we considered the place of task analy- non-value-adding steps, role ambiguities (several positions sis in the ADDIE model of instructional design. Turning to responsible for a task, or no one responsible for a task), etc. tactical issues, we have reviewed how the author of an SOP Document all the points raised by the peer review. prepares for a task analysis, conducts a task analysis, and Then, we test the real-world applicability of the process finalizes the task analysis and incorporates the data, includ- map by challenging it step-by-step on the floor or at the lab ing best practices, into the SOP. The SOP is then used as a bench. Select a seasoned employee within the scope – not point of comparison with employee task performance, to an SME – and compare the process as mapped against the identify any performance gap. This points the way to the employee’s activities. Do they align? Ask questions – look next phase of the ADDIE model, where courseware is de- for evidence of resistance, repetition, human factors prob- signed to address that performance gap. GXP lems such as task complexity. Document everything in the challenge. DISCLAIMER Assemble, Evaluate, and Revise Process Map The content, views, and opinions expressed in this article The last step in the task analysis is to assemble all the data are those of the author, and are not intended to express the from this stage, evaluate it comprehensively, and revise the views or approach of Schering-Plough. process map in light of it. ENDNOTES Now we have completed the task analysis. We have drafted the 1. We use the following terminology in this article: process map; we have highlighted best practices; we have chal- Author: An instructional designer, the originator of a procedure, the facilita- lenged the process map in a real-world setting; and finally, we have tor of the task analysis session, a technical writer, etc. revised the process map in light of all these inputs. It is time to Courseware: A training module, LMS software, job aid, organizational devel- opment program, etc. seek management approval. Management: Referring to either supervision in a line of business or the supervision of a given author; which one will be clear in context SME: A subject m atter expert in a task or process 2. See the excellent case-study in James L. Vesper, Performance: The Goal of Once the task analysis has been finalized, and approved Training - or Why Training is Not Always the Answer, BioPharm (Eugene), by management, the facilitator can translate the task analy- (Feb 2001), Vol. 14, Part 2, pp. 44-46. 3. See R. W. Tuli and G. E. Apostolakis, Incorporating Organizational Issues into sis process map into the documentary form of the SOP, the Root-cause Analysis, Process Safety and Environmental Protection, (1996), 74, 3-16. actual procedure, protocol, manufacturing order, packag- 4. Irwin Goldstein and Kevin Ford, Training in Organizations, Belmont, CA: Wadsworth, 4th Ed. (2002). ing order, etc. Many times, this translation will amount to 5. Jason Colquitt, Jeffrey LePine, and Raymond Noe, Toward an Integrative the discursive writing-out of the process map captured in Theory of Training Motivation, Journal of Applied Psychology, (2000), Vol. 85, Visio®. Any time the documentary form deviates from the No.5, 678-707. 6. Kenneth Nowack, A True Training Needs Analysis, Training and Development process map, the latter will provide the guidance. Journal, (April 1991), Vol. 45, No. 4, 69-73. After the SOP has been developed, revised, and approved, 7. The FDA refers to these documents as “procedures” in 21 CFR 211, and as “standard operating procedures” in 21 CFR 58.35. the author can turn to the design of courseware that will 8. See Kevin Linderman, Roger Schroeder, Srilata Zaheerr, and Adrian Choo, close any performance gap(s) that is evident in employee Six-Sigma: A goal-theoretic perspective, Journal of Operations Management, (2003), 21, 193-203. Indeed, Kaliym Islam has recently suggested that the task performance. Analysis phase of the ADDIE model be preceded by Define, and Measure, phases, to ensure that “true business requirements” are specified, and appro- priate metrics are selected from the outset. See his “Designing an Effective Certification Program,” LTI Newsline (14 Dec 2005). The importance of CONCLUSION identifying, and addressing, the business case for a proposed revision of an We have considered how SOPs - and associated standards SOP, or for the subsequent training intervention, can hardly be overstated. 9. See Herbert Simon, A Behavioral Model of Rational Choice, Quarterly Journal that allow us to identify performance gaps - are developed of Economics, (1955), Vol. 69, No. 1, 99-118; Richard Day, Profits, Learning,  SPECIAL EDITION: The ADDIE Model, and Instructional Generic Design Model Gordon Welty, Ph.D. and the Convergence of Satisficing to Marginalism, Quarterly Journal of Eco- Questions, Training and Development Journal, (2000), Vol. 54, No. 10, 20-22; nomics, (1967), Vol. 81, No. 2, 302-311; Alex Michalos, Rationality between Joseph Mattoon, Designing and Developing Technical Curricula: Finding the the Maximizers and the Satisficers, Policy Sciences, (1973), Vol. 4, No. 2, Right Subject Matter Expert, Journal of Industrial Teacher Education (2005), 229-244; and Barry Schwartz, et al. Maximizing versus Satisficing, Journal of Vol. 42, No.2. Personality and Social Psychology, (2002), Vol. 83, No. 5, 1178-1197. 18. Brenda Sugrue, Performance-Based Instructional Design for E-learning, Per- 10. This consideration obtains within the phases of the ADDIE model as well. For formance Improvement, (2002), Vol. 41, No. 7, p. 52 provides a Task Analysis example, the “P x C” rule for continuing (or concluding) a task analysis, where Template that is useful for guiding and documenting the interaction with the probability “P” of performance failure times the cost “C” of performance the SMEs. failure, is estimated for a given level of granularity of the task analysis. If P x C 19. Darin Hartley, Job Analysis at the Speed of Reality, T + D, (2004), Vol. 58, is unacceptably large, the task analysis continues to a more fine-grained level; No.9, 20-22. see Neville Stanton, Hierarchical task analysis: Developments, applications, 20. James Reason, Combating Omission Errors through Task Analysis and Good and extensions, Applied Ergonomics, (2006), Vol. 37, No. 1, 55-79; also Liu Reminders, Quality and Safety in Health Care, (2002), Vol. 11, No. 1, p. 43. Xijuan, Wang Yinglin, and Jaing Shouwei, A metrics based task analysis model for design review planning, Design Studies, (July 2003), Vol. 24, No. 4, 375- 390. Specifying the value of the estimates of P and C, as well as the criterion of acceptability itself, is ultimately management’s decision, which highlights ARTICLE ACRONYM LISTING the importance of ongoing communication between the facilitator of the task analysis, the facilitator’s management, and the business owner of the SOP. ADDIE Analyze, Design, Develop, Implement, Evaluate 11. Mary Benner and Michael Tushman, Process Management and Technological Innovation, Administrative Science Quarterly, (2002), Vol. 47, No. 4, 676-706. DMAIC Define, Measure, Analyze, Improve, Control 12. John DiLollo, The Use of SOPs in a Pharmaceutical Manufacturing Environ- GMP Good Manufacturing Practice ment, Journal of cGMP Compliance (2000), Vol. 4, No. 3, 33-35. LMS Learning Management System 13. Yasar Jarrar and Mohamed Zairi, Best Practice Transfer for Future Competi- OD Organizational Development tiveness, Total Quality Management, (2000), Vol. 11, No. 4, 734-741. 14. While it restricts itself to e-learning topics, Conrad Gottfredson, Rapid Task QA Quality Assurance Analysis, Learning Solutions e-Magazine, (June 2002), Issue 160 is very useful. QC Quality Control 15. Robert Gatewood and Hubert Feild, Human Resource Selection, Ft. Worth, TX: SMART Specific, Measurable, Achievable,Relevant, Time-based Harcourt, 5th Ed. (2001). SME Subject Matter Expert 16. Charles Reigeluth, “Elaboration Theory,” in C. M. Reigeluth (Ed) Instructional Design Theories and Models, Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum (1999), p. 435. SOJT Structured On-The-Job Training 17. Peter Zvalo, Writer and Subject-Matter Expert - Establishing a Positive SOP Standard Operating Procedure Relationship, Writer’s Block (Summer 2000); Dorothy Leeds, The Power of Originally published in the April 2007 issue of Journal of GXP Compliance SPECIAL EDITION: The ADDIE Model, and Instructional Generic Design Model  Gordon Welty, Ph.D. The ‘Design’ Phase of the ADDIE Model The Design phase of the ADDIE model is where we address any Figure 1 Addie Model Workflow performance gaps identified in the Analysis phase, complete the Training Outline, and secure management approval. INTRODUCTION Analyze The ADDIE model is a generic instructional design model. It provides guidance at a fairly high level for instructional designers, software engineers, etc., as they author and re- Design vise learning products. The phases of the ADDIE model are Analyze, Design, Develop, Implement, and Evaluate. These phases are sequential – each depends upon the successful completion of the preceding phase. Develop Moreover, the ADDIE model is an iterative feedback model, which means that the results of the Evaluation phase are returned to the origination point (fed back), closing the loop, facilitating further refinement of the learning product. Implement If the evaluation shows that the module has shortcomings, for example, that the objectives of the module do not align with organizational objectives, those shortcomings are re- turned to be analyzed again. Further design and develop- Evaluate ment efforts follow, until the module meets organizational needs. In this article, we will examine the three components of the Design phase (see Sidebar, on facing page) in turn. • The relationship between learning product and the The Learning Product In The Larger Curriculum various regulatory requirements (e.g.: FDA, OSHA, Fitting the proposed learning product into the larger curric- EPA, DEA, etc.) ulum ensures the articulation of this product with all other learning products, and the alignment of this product with The Structure of Modules organizational goals. There are four aspects to this “fit” – The larger curriculum is comprised of a set of modules that • The structure of modules focus the training effort on accomplishing organizational • The relationship between the learning product and goals. The Design phase is where the fit between the pro- the associated SOP posed learning product and the larger curriculum is delin- • The learning product’s reduction by consolidation of SOPs eated. This means outlining the structure of the training 10 SPECIAL EDITION: The ADDIE Model, and Instructional Generic Design Model