THE ACCURACY OF SELF-EFFICACY BELIEFS IN OUTDOOR EDUCATION by Scott Schumann A dissertation submitted to the faculty of The University of Utah in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Department of Parks, Recreation, and Tourism University of Utah May 2013 Copyright © Scott Schumann 2013 All Rights Reserved The University of Utah Graduate School STATEMENT OF DISSERTATION APPROVAL The dissertation of Scott Schumann has been approved by the following supervisory committee members: Jim Sibthorp , Chair 2/29/12 Date Approved Karen Paisley , Member 11/22/11 Date Approved Edward Ruddell , Member 11/22/11 Date Approved Ann Darling , Member 11/22/11 Date Approved Doug Hacker , Member 11/22/11 Date Approved and by Daniel Dustin , Chair of the Department of Parks, Recreation, and Tourism and by Charles A. Wight, Dean of The Graduate School. ABSTRACT In the present era of outcome assessment and accountability, self-efficacy is a popular outcome measure in outdoor and adventure education. Self-efficacy beliefs are context specific perceptions an individual possesses about a likelihood of success in future tasks and are related to well-being confidence, and persistence. However, recent research findings refute the traditional view that more is better, when it comes to self- efficacy beliefs. Specifically, findings indicate that these beliefs can be inaccurate and can easily become inflated resulting in decreases in motivation and performance. Outdoor and adventure-based education is one such context to avoid the inflation of self- efficacy beliefs due to the physical and educational consequences associated with failure (e.g., psychological harm, injury, or death). The following research examined a proposed seven factor structure of outdoor education practice. Exploratory factor analysis results (N = 303) indicated a 23-item, 5- factor structure which included (a) instruction and assessment, (b) outdoor classroom management, (c) technical skill, (d) interpersonal skill, and (e) environmental integration. Confirmatory factor analysis (N = 200) examined the fit of this model. Results indicated an acceptable fit with strong internal consistency and convergent validity for the Teaching Outdoor Education Self-Efficacy Scale with 22 items (TOE-SES 22). Subsequent research examined the effects of a monitoring intervention on the accuracy of teaching outdoor education self-efficacy beliefs. Treatment group participants on National Outdoor Leadership School Instructor Courses predicted their performance (a self-efficacy belief) before teaching a course topic, self-assessed that performance, and compared the accuracy of their predictions and self-assessments to an expert evaluation of their performance. Results indicated outdoor educators-in-training integrated this information and calibrated their TOESE beliefs better than the control group. Attending to the accuracy of teacher self-efficacy beliefs early in an educator’s career may help him approach or avoid tasks when appropriate and ultimately, direct him toward developing the skills he is lacking. Teaching outdoor education is a complex task involving several factors, monitoring interventions are a strategy outdoor educator trainers should consider in their efforts to help emerging outdoor educators hone a complex set of skills to effectively and safely teach in the outdoors. iv To Devi Rose and Joan Schumann, Ph.D. TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT ....................................................................................................................... iii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ............................................................................................... viii Chapters I INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................................1 References ................................................................................................................6 II THE ILLUSION OF COMPETENCE: INCREASING SELF-EFFICACY IN OUTDOOR LEADERS ...................................................................................10 Abstract ..................................................................................................................10 Introduction ............................................................................................................11 Literature Review...................................................................................................12 Conclusion .............................................................................................................31 References ..............................................................................................................32 III THE DEVELOPMENT AND SCALING OF THE TEACHING OUTDOOR EDUCATION SELF-EFFICACY SCALE ...........................................................39 Abstract .................................................................................................................39 Introduction ...........................................................................................................40 Methods (Study 1)..................................................................................................49 Results (Study 1) ....................................................................................................52 Methods (Study 2)..................................................................................................53 Results (Study 2) ....................................................................................................57 Discussion and Conclusions ..................................................................................61 References ..............................................................................................................63 IV IMPROVING THE ACCURACY OF EMERGING OUTDOOR EDUCATOR’S TEACHING SELF-EFFICACY THROUGH A METACOGNITIVE MONITORING INTERVENTION .......................................................................68 Abstract .................................................................................................................68 Introduction ...........................................................................................................69 Methods .................................................................................................................76 Results ....................................................................................................................81 Discussion ..............................................................................................................85 Conclusion .............................................................................................................90 References ..............................................................................................................91 V SUMMARY ...........................................................................................................96 References ..............................................................................................................99 Appendices A: MONITORING EXERCISE WORKSHEETS ..............................................101 B: TEACHING OUTDOOR EDUCATION SELF-EFFICACY SCALE (TOE-SES 22) ...................................................108 vii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Not unlike an expedition in mountains this project was successful due to the contribution and support of many people. First, I would like to thank my committee chair, Jim Sibthorp, whose extensive knowledge of research as well as outdoor education practice improved the quality of this research and provided a model for my future endeavors. I’d like to thank Doug Hacker, who provided the spark that would become this dissertation by introducing me to the concept of metacognition and who subsequently fueled the fire for the research whilst sharing a tent amidst the shadow of Denali and the mountaintops of the Alaska Range. Thank you to the rest of my committee, Edward Ruddell, Karen Paisley, and Ann Darling for your encouragement and critique along the way. Thank you to the NOLS students who contributed their time and energy during your NOLS experiences; my hope is that you have left with a better understanding of “what you know and what you don’t know” and will be safer, more effective outdoor educators as a result. Thank you to the NOLS instructors who invested time in the study when you were already stretched thin; your work is hard work and you deserve more than sunsets for the difference you make in your students lives. I would like to express my deepest gratitude to my parents who instilled in me a passion for the outdoors and supported my pursuit in the atypical career path that is outdoor education. Lastly, I’d like to thank my partner, Joan, whose support was unwavering as she simultaneously completed her own Ph.D., became a mother to our daughter Devi, and brought home the bacon. Thank you. CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION In the present era of outcome assessment and accountability, self-efficacy is a popular outcome measure in outdoor and adventure education (e.g., Davis-Berman & Berman, 1994; Hattie, Marsh, Neill, & Richards, 1997; Paxton & McAvoy, 1998; Jones & Hinton, 2007). Self-efficacy beliefs are context specific perceptions an individual possesses about a likelihood of success in future tasks (Bandura, 1986) and are related to well-being (Bunting, 2000), confidence (Propst & Kessler, 1998), and persistence (Pajares, 1997). Historically, and with few exceptions (cf. Sibthorp, 2003), the development of self-efficacy beliefs from participation in outdoor education is viewed as a positive and desirable outcome (e.g., Kimbrough, 2007). However, recent research findings in applied psychology and human performance refute the traditional view that more is better, when it comes to self-efficacy beliefs. Specifically, findings indicate that these beliefs can be inaccurate and can easily become inflated (Schmidt & DeShon, 2009) resulting in decreases in motivation and performance (Moores & Chang, 2009; Vancouver & Kendall, 2006; Yeo & Neal, 2006). These findings clearly demonstrate that in some contexts “efficacy-enhancing interventions should be approached with caution” (Schmidt & DeShon, 2009, p. 201).Outdoor and adventure-based education is one such context to avoid the inflation of self-efficacy beliefs due to the physical