Ten Philosophical Mistakes Mortimer I. Adler MACMILLAN PUBLISHING COMPANY New York COLLIER MACMILLAN PUBLISHERS London Copyright © 1985 by Mortimer J. Adler All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording or by any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the Publisher. Macmillan Publishing Company 866 Third Avenue, New York, N.Y. 10022 Collier Macmillan Canada, Inc. Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Adler, Mortimer Jerome, 1902-Ten philosophical mistakes. Includes bibliographical references. 1. Philosophy. I. Title. II. Title: 10 philosophical mistakes. B72.A34 1985 100 84-26144 ISBN O-O2-5OO33O-5 Printed in the United States of America To Wynn and Larry Aldrich Contents To the Reader Prologue: Little Errors in the Beginning The Ten Subjects About Which the Mistakes Are Made PART ONE Consciousness and Its Objects The Intellect and the Senses Words and Meanings Knowledge and Opinion Moral Values PART TWO Happiness and Contentment Freedom of Choice Human Nature Human Society Human Existence Epilogue: Modern Science and Ancient Wisdom To the Reader Titles of books are often misleading; sometimes they are inaccurate. Mine is not misleading, but it is inaccurate. Readers will find that there are more than ten philosophical mistakes considered and corrected in this book. But there are ten subjects about which these mistakes are made. A completely accurate, but also more cumbersome, title would have been: Ten Subjects About Which Philosophical Mistakes Have Been Made. I trust readers will understand why I chose the shorter, though less accurate, title. Readers will also find that the five chapters of Part One are longer than the five chapters of Part Two. The reason is that the mistakes discussed in Part One are more difficult to expound clearly. It is also more difficult to explain what is involved in correcting them. I should, perhaps, add that in my judgment the philosophical errors discussed in Part One are more fundamental and give rise to more serious consequences in modern thought. To the Reader I have not tried to argue for or prove the truths that I have offered as corrections of the errors pointed out. I rely upon the reader’s common sense to discern that the corrections have the ring of truth. PROLOGUE Little Errors in the Beginning 1 “The least initial deviation from the truth is multiplied later a thousandfold.” So wrote Aristotle in the fourth century B.C. Sixteen centuries later Thomas Aquinas echoed this observation. Paraphrasing it, he said in effect that little errors in the beginning lead to serious consequences in the end. Neither Aristotle nor Aquinas had in mind the philosophical mistakes—all little errors in the beginning—with which this book is concerned. All of them are modern philosophical errors, mistakes made by philosophers since the seventeenth century, the century that was marked by departures in thought initiated by Thomas Hobbes in England and by Rene Descartes in France. In one or two instances, the philosophical errors with which we will be here concerned repeat errors that first occurred in antiquity. But this does not alter the fact that all of these mistakes are typically, if not wholly, modern in origin and in the serious consequences to which they have led in modern thought. Those serious consequences not only pervade contemporary philosophical thought, but also manifest themselves in popular misconceptions widely prevalent today. They all tend in the same direction. They affect our understanding of ourselves, our lives, our institutions, and our experience. They mislead our action as well as becloud our thought. They are not cloistered errors of merely academic significance. They have been popularized and spread abroad in a variety of ways. Many of us have unwittingly harbored some of these mistakes in our minds without knowing whence or how they came there. 2 To call these philosophical mistakes little errors is not to belittle their importance. It is rather to say that they are extremely simple mistakes, capable of being stated in a single sentence or two. The truth that corrects them is correspondingly simple and similarly capable of brief statement. However, their simplicity does not preclude certain complications. Some of these little errors involve a number of related points. Some have a number of related aspects. Some are dual mistakes, including both of two false extremes. Seen in their simplicity, or even with their attendant complications, they are mistakes that occur at the outset of a long train of thought, leading from erroneous premises through many steps to the false conclusions or consequences that those premises ultimately entail. At the very beginning, before the consequences are discerned, the mistake appears innocent and goes unnoticed. Only when we are confronted with the repugnant conclusions to which cogent reasoning carries us are we impelled to retrace our steps to find out where we went wrong. Only then is the erroneous premise that at first appeared innocent revealed as the culprit—a wolf in sheep’s clothing. Unfortunately much of modern thought has not sought in this way to avoid conclusions that have been regarded as unacceptable for one reason or another. Instead of retracing the steps that lead back to their sources in little errors at the beginning, modern thinkers have tried in other ways to circumvent the result of the initial errors, often compounding the difficulties instead of overcoming them. The advances that have been made in modern thought do not mitigate the disasters produced by conclusions that were not abandoned by discovering the initial mistakes from which they sprang. Making new starts by substituting true premises for false would have radically changed the picture that modern philosophy presents. 3 The order in which these philosophical mistakes are taken up in the following chapters is somewhat arbitrary, but not entirely so. If their seriousness for human life and action had been the criterion for deciding which should come first, the order might have been reversed. The last six of the ten chapters concern matters that have more obvious practical importance for our everyday life. The first four seem more ought not to be sought or done—on the side of mere opinion. There are no objectively valid and universally tenable moral standards or norms. This denial undermines the whole doctrine of natural, human rights, and, even worse, lends support to the dogmatic declaration that might makes right. The sixth mistake follows hard upon the fifth. It consists in the identification of happiness—a word we all use for something that everyone seeks for its own sake—with the purely psychological state of contentment, which we experience when we have the satisfaction of getting what we want. Modern thought and people generally in our time have totally ignored the other meaning of happiness as the moral quality of a whole life well lived. This error together with two related errors—the failure to distinguish between needs and wants and between real and merely apparent goods—undermines all modern efforts to produce a sound moral philosophy. The seventh mistake differs from all the rest. We are here concerned with the age-old controversy between those who affirm man’s freedom of choice and determinists who deny it on scientific grounds. The failure here is one of understanding. This misunderstanding is accompanied, on the part of the determinists, by a mistaken view of the relation between free choice and moral responsibility. The issue between the two parties to the controversy is not joined. The determinists do not understand the grounds on which the case for free will and free choice rests. Hence their arguments miss the mark. The eighth mistake consists in the astounding, yet in our day widely prevalent, denial of human nature. It goes to the extreme of asserting that nothing common to all human beings underlies the different behavioral tendencies and characteristics we find in the subgroups of the human race. The ninth mistake concerns the origin of various forms of human association—the family, the tribe or village, and the state or civil society. Failing to understand how the basic forms of human association are both natural and conventional (in this respect unlike the instinctively determined associations of other gregarious animals, which are natural only), it foists two totally unnecessary myths upon us—the myth of a primitive state of mankind in which individuals lived in total isolation from one another and the myth of the social contract by means of which they departed from that primitive state and entered into civil society. The tenth mistake is a metaphysical one. It consists in an error that can be called the fallacy of reductionism— assigning a much greater reality to the parts of an organized whole than to the whole itself; or even worse, maintaining that only the ultimate component parts have reality and that the wholes they constitute are mere appearances, or even illusory. According to that view, the real existences that constitute the physical world are the elementary particles that are components of the atom. When we regard human individuals as having the real existence and the enduring identity that they appear to have, we are suffering an illusion. If that is the case, then again we are devoid of moral responsibility for our actions. As I have pointed out, some of these mistakes have their prototypes in antiquity, but where that is the case we can find a refutation of them in Aristotle. The repetition of these mistakes in modern thought plainly indicates an ignorance of Aristotle’s correction of them. I hope that this brief summary of the ten subjects about which philosophical mistakes have been made in modern times whets the reader’s appetite for exploring them and for learning how they can be corrected or remedied. When readers have done that, they should turn to the Epilogue for a historical explanation of why these mistakes were made, who made them, and how they could have been avoided. The Ten Subjects About Which the Mistakes Are Made PART ONE CHAPTER 1 Consciousness and Its Objects 1 Let us begin with something everyone understands and ask some questions about it. It is to these questions that opposite answers are given—wrong answers and right ones. When we are sleeping and not dreaming, we are unconscious. When we describe ourselves as unconscious, we are in effect saying that — we are unaware of whatever is happening in the world around us or even in our own bodies, — we are apprehending nothing; we are aware of nothing, — our minds are blank or empty, — we are experiencing nothing, or are living through an unexperienced interval of time. To say that we are aware of nothing, or apprehending nothing, is equivalent to saying that we are perceiving nothing, remembering nothing, imagining nothing, thinking of nothing. We might even add that we are sensing nothing and feeling nothing. That set of words—perceiving, remembering, imagining, thinking, sensing, and feeling—comes very near to exhausting the acts in which our minds engage when we are awake and conscious. When none of these acts are occurring, our minds are blank and empty. When that is the case, it may also be said that we have no perceptions, memories, images, thoughts, sensations, or feelings. At first blush, it would appear that much of the foregoing is repetitious. We seem to be saying the same thing over and over again. But that is not the case, as we shall soon see. Among the various statements made above, some lead to right and some to wrong answers to the pivotal question: When we are conscious, what is it that we are conscious of? Let me put that question in other ways in which it can be asked. What are we aware of? What are we experiencing or having experiences of? The crucial word in all these questions is the little preposition “of.” Grammatically, it calls for an object. What is the object that provides the answer to all these related questions? Still one more question: When we are conscious, and therefore our minds are not blank and empty, what are they filled with? It has become customary to speak of the stream of consciousness or the flow of thought to describe what successively fills our consciousness or makes up our experience from moment to moment. What does it consist of? In other words, what is the changing content of consciousness? One answer to the question is given by using the word “idea” for all of the quite different sorts of things that fill our minds when we are conscious. That word has been so used by modern philosophers, notably by John Locke, who introduced the usage. In the Introduction to his Essay Concerning Human Understanding, he told his readers how he intended to use the word “idea,” as follows: Before I proceed on to what I have thought on this subject [human understanding], I must here in the entrance beg pardon of my reader for the frequent use of the word idea, which he will find in the following treatise. It being the term which, I think, serves best to stand for whatsoever is the object of the understanding when a man thinks, I have used it to express… whatever it is which the mind can be employed about in thinking. … I presume it will be easily granted me, that there are such ideas in men’s minds: every one is conscious of them in himself; and men’s words and actions will satisfy him that they are in others. Locke’s use of the word “thinking” is as omni-compre-hensive as his use of the word “idea.” He uses “thinking” for all the acts of the mind, just as he uses the word “idea” for all the objects of the mind when it is thinking, or for all the contents of consciousness when we are conscious. Thus used, the word “thinking” stands for all the mental activities that, when distinguished, go by such names as “perceiving,” “remembering,” “imagining,” “conceiving,” “judging,” “reasoning”; also “sensing” and “feeling.” In the same way, the word “ideas,” used in an omni- comprehensive fashion, covers a wide variety of items that can also be distinguished from one another: percepts, memories, images, thoughts or concepts, sensations, and feelings. It would be unfair to Locke not to state at once that he does differentiate these various items, all of which he groups together under the one word “idea.” He also distinguishes the different acts of the mind that bring ideas of all sorts into it, or that produce ideas for the mind to be conscious or aware of. Let this be granted, but the question still remains whether Locke has distinguished them correctly or not. That in turn leads to the pivotal question with which we are here concerned: What are the objects of the mind when it is conscious of anything? The wrong answer to that question, with all the consequences that follow in its train, is the philosophical mistake with which this chapter deals. 2 In the introductory passage of Locke’s Essay quoted above, two things are told to the reader. One is that Locke expects him to agree that he has ideas in his own mind, ideas of which he is conscious. The other is that the reader will concede that other individuals also have ideas in their own minds, ideas of which they, too, are conscious. Since no one can be conscious of the ideas in the minds of others, Locke qualifies this second point by saying that, from the way others speak and behave, we infer that they, too, have ideas in their minds, often very like our own. These two points together introduce a note of fundamental importance. The ideas in my mind are my ideas. The ideas in yours are yours. These possessive pronouns call attention to the fact that the ideas in anyone’s mind are subjective: they belong to that one person and to no one else. Just as there are as many human minds in the world as there are individual persons, so there are as many distinct sets of ideas as there are individually distinct minds. Each person has his own. Only one’s own ideas are, according to Locke, the objects of that person’s awareness when he or she is conscious. No one can be conscious of another person’s ideas. They are never objects of which anyone else is immediately aware. To concede that another individual also has ideas, of which we can have no direct awareness, must always result from an act of inference, based on what others say and do. If the word “object” applied to ideas as that of which we are aware when we are conscious leads us to think that ideas are objective or have objectivity, then an apparent contradiction confronts us. We appear to be saying opposite things about ideas: on the one hand, that my ideas, being exclusively mine and not yours or anyone else’s, are subjective; on the other hand, that my ideas also have objectivity. We appear compelled to admit that, for any one individual, the ideas in the minds of other individuals are not objects of which he or she can be conscious. Their subjectivity puts them beyond the reach of his or her immediate awareness. In other words, the ideas in a given person’s mind are objects for that person alone. They are beyond immediate apprehension for everyone else. Let us pause for a moment to consider the meaning of the words “objective” and “subjective.” We call something objective when it is the same for me, for you, and for anyone else. We call something subjective when it differs from one individual to another and when it is exclusively the possession of one individual and of no one else. To reinforce this understanding of the distinction between the subjective and the objective, let me introduce another pair of words: “public” and “private.” These two words can be used to divide all our experience into that which is public and that which is private. An experience is public if it is common to two or more individuals. It may not be actually common to all, but it must at least be potentially common to all. An experience is private if it belongs to one individual alone and cannot possibly be shared directly by anyone else. Let me illustrate this division of all our experiences into public and private by proposing what I regard as (and what I hope readers will agree are) clear and indisputable examples of each type. Our bodily feelings, including our emotions or passions, are private. My toothache, heartburn, or anger is something directly experienced by me alone. I can talk to you about it and if you, too, have had such bodily feelings, you can understand what I am talking about. But understanding what I am talking about is one thing; having these experiences yourself is quite another.