St Antony’s Series General Editor: Jan Zielonka(2004–), Fellow of St Antony’s College, Oxford Recent titles include: Victoria D. Alexander and Marilyn Rueschemeyer ART AND THE STATE The Visual Arts in Comparative Perspective Thomas Boghardt SPIES OF THE KAISER German Covert Operations in Great Britain during the First World War Era Ulf Schmidt JUSTICE AT NUREMBERG Leo Alexander and the Nazi Doctors’ Trial Steve Tsang (editor) PEACE AND SECURITY ACROSS THE TAIWAN STRAIT C. W. Braddick JAPAN AND THE SINO–SOVIET ALLIANCE, 1950–1964 In the Shadow of the Monolith Isao Miyaoka LEGITIMACY IN INTERNATIONAL SOCIETY Japan’s Reaction to Global Wildlife Preservation Neil J. Melvin SOVIET POWER AND THE COUNTRYSIDE Policy Innovation and Institutional Decay Julie M. Newton RUSSIA, FRANCE AND THE IDEA OF EUROPE Juhana Aunesluoma BRITAIN, SWEDEN AND THE COLD WAR, 1945–54 Understanding Neutrality George Pagoulatos GREECE’S NEW POLITICAL ECONOMY State, Finance and Growth from Postwar to EMU Tiffany A. Troxel PARLIAMENTARY POWER IN RUSSIA, 1994–2001 A New Era Elvira María Restrepo COLOMBIAN CRIMINAL JUSTICE IN CRISIS Fear and Distrust Ilaria Favretto THE LONG SEARCH FOR A THIRD WAY The British Labour Party and the Italian Left Since 1945 Lawrence Tal POLITICS, THE MILITARY, AND NATIONAL SECURITY IN JORDAN, 1955–1967 Louise Haagh and Camilla Helgø (editors) SOCIAL POLICY REFORM AND MARKET GOVERNANCE IN LATIN AMERICA Gayil Talshir THE POLITICAL IDEOLOGY OF GREEN PARTIES From the Politics of Nature to Redefining the Nature of Politics E. K. Dosmukhamedov FOREIGN DIRECT INVESTMENT IN KAZAKHSTAN Politico-Legal Aspects of Post-Communist Transition Felix Patrikeeff RUSSIAN POLITICS IN EXILE The Northeast Asian Balance of Power, 1924–1931 He Ping CHINA’S SEARCH FOR MODERNITY Cultural Discourse in the Late 20th Century Mariana Llanos PRIVATIZATION AND DEMOCRACY IN ARGENTINA An Analysis of President–Congress Relations Michael Addison VIOLENT POLITICS Strategies of Internal Conflict Geoffrey Wiseman CONCEPTS OF NON-PROVOCATIVE DEFENCE Ideas and Practices in International Security Pilar Ortuño Anaya EUROPEAN SOCIALISTS AND SPAIN The Transition to Democracy, 1959–77 Miwao Matsumoto TECHNOLOGY GATEKEEPERS FOR WAR AND PEACE The British Ship Revolution and Japanese Industrialization St Antony’s Series Series Standing Order ISBN 0–333–71109–2 (outside North America only) You can receive future titles in this series as they are published by placing a standing order. Please contact your bookseller or, in case of difficulty, write to us at the address below with your name and address, the title of the series and the ISBN quoted above. Customer Services Department, Macmillan Distribution Ltd, Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire RG21 6XS, England Technology Gatekeepers for War and Peace The British Ship Revolution and Japanese Industrialization Miwao Matsumoto University of Tokyo in association with St Antony’s College, Oxford © Miwao Matsumoto 2006 Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1st edition 2006 978-1-4039-3687-5 All rights reserved.No reproduction,copy or transmission of this publication may be made without written permission. No paragraph of this publication may be reproduced,copied or transmitted save with written permission or in accordance with the provisions of the Copyright,Designs and Patents Act 1988,or under the terms of any licence permitting limited copying issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency,90 Tottenham Court Road,London W1T 4LP. Any person who does any unauthorized act in relation to this publication may be liable to criminal prosecution and civil claims for damages. The author has asserted his right to be identified as the author of this work in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. First published 2006 by PALGRAVE MACMILLAN Houndmills,Basingstoke,Hampshire RG21 6XS and 175 Fifth Avenue,New York,N.Y.10010 Companies and representatives throughout the world. PALGRAVE MACMILLAN is the global academic imprint of the Palgrave Macmillan division of St.Martin’s Press,LLC and of Palgrave Macmillan Ltd. Macmillan® is a registered trademark in the United States,United Kingdom and other countries.Palgrave is a registered trademark in the European Union and other countries. ISBN 978-1-349-51897-5 ISBN 978-0-230-50417-2 (eBook) DOI 10.1057/9780230504172 This book is printed on paper suitable for recycling and made from fully managed and sustained forest sources. A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Matsumoto,Miwao Technology gatekeepers for war and peace :the British ship revolution and Japanese industrialization / Miwao Matsumoto. p.cm.– (St.Antony’s series) Includes bibliographical references and index. 1.Naval architecture—Great Britain—History—19th century.2.Naval architecture—Great Britain—History—20th century.3.Technology transfer— Great Britain.4.Technology transfer—Japan.5.Warships—Great Britain— Design and construction.6.Warships—Japan—Design and construction. 7.Industrialization—Japan.I.Title.II.St.Antony’s series (Palgrave Macmillan (Firm)) VM57.M367 2005 338.4(cid:2)762381(cid:2)095209041—dc22 2005043363 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 15 14 13 12 11 10 09 08 07 06 Contents List of Figures and Tables viii Preface xi Acknowledgements xiii List of Abbreviations xv 1 Introduction: Problems and Approaches 1 The scientific and technological revolution at the turn of the century 2 The significance of the ship revolution 5 General problems and models 6 A changing Japan in a changing world 7 The role of the Ministry of Engineering and the Engineering College in the formation of infrastructure and human resources 9 Emerging professionalization: domestic professional societies 12 A new gatekeeper model of science and technology transfer 16 Dimensions of ‘gatekeepers’ 18 A new composite model of industrialization 19 Dimensions of ‘composite’ 20 The composition of the book 23 2 The Technology Gatekeepers: The Role of the Navy and Mitsubishi in the Ship Revolution 26 The industrialization of Japan, the transfer of science and technology, and technology gatekeepers 27 How large was the science and technology gap? 28 The role of Mitsubishi Nagasaki Shipyard 32 The role of the Imperial Japanese Navy 41 Conclusion 47 3 Technology Gatekeepers Combine: The Emergence of the Japanese Military-Industrial-University Complex 50 The course of the transfer of marine steam turbine technology to Japan 52 The Imperial Japanese Navy as a technology gatekeeper: a dual role 54 v vi Contents The rationality of technology gatekeepers 61 The role of Mitsubishi Nagasaki Shipyard 63 Entrepreneurial risk-taking of technology gatekeepers 68 How did technology gatekeepers combine? The emergence of the Japanese military-industrial-university complex 74 Conclusion 78 4 ‘Spin-on’ and Latecomers’ Advantages Reconsidered: British Development and Japanese Transfer in Social Context 81 The social impact of the Turbinia 83 From professionalization to R&D: C. A. Parsons and ‘spin-on’ in the development of the marine steam turbine 87 The role of the Royal Navy: a de facto‘spin-off’ story 94 Development in the laissez-faireBritish state 99 Science and technical practice in marine turbine technology 101 The Japanese social context of ‘spin-on’ in transferring the scientific aspect of the marine turbine 102 Industrial education within the company 106 Invention within the organization 108 The emergence of the Mitsubishi type and the process ofde facto‘spin-off’ 111 Conclusion 115 5 ‘Spin-off’ in the Nationalization of R&D: The Recasting of the British System in an Industrializing Japan 118 The British ‘spin-off’ process in the setting up of the National Physical Laboratory’s experimental tank 119 The Japanese ‘spin-off’ process in the setting up of the National Experimental Tank 124 The social background underlying public R&D organizations: the INA and the Shipbuilding Association 128 The implications of the nationalization of R&D in Britain and Japan 136 Patterns of institutionalization 140 Conclusion 142 6 Conclusion: Beyond Success or Failure 145 The structure and function of the ship revolution 147 The wartime mobilization of science and technology and the military-industrial-university complex 151 Success or failure? 159 Contents vii The development of the Kanponturbine and its pitfalls 160 Secrecy about the failure 163 TheRinkichofailure and the outbreak of war with the US and Britain: how did Japan deal with the problem? 167 Conclusion: beyond success or failure 172 Appendix 176 Notes 180 Select Bibliography 221 Name Index 237 Subject Index 242 List of Figures and Tables Figures 1.1 Total number of foreign employees, by Japanese government department, in the Meiji period, 1876–98 10 1.2 Change over time in the number of regular members of the Electrical Engineering Society and the Mechanical Engineering Society in Japan 16 1.3 The new gatekeeper model of science and technology transfer 18 1.4 Previous models of science and technology transfer 18 2.1 First test records of the experimental tank in Japan 36 3.1 Numbers of workers in Japanese shipbuilding companies in 1907 58 3.2 Total HP of prime movers used in production in Japanese shipbuilding companies in 1907 58 3.3 Naval vessel construction by Japanese shipbuilding companies, 1884–1914 59 3.4 A plane view of the first Kanpontype marine steam turbine 60 3.5 The marine steam turbines of the Shunyomaruunder construction at Mitsubishi Nagasaki Shipyard 67 3.6 Water consumption per hour of the turbine ship and steamers 70 3.7 Coal consumption per hour of the turbine ship and steamers 71 4.1 TheTurbiniaat Spithead 83 4.2 Actual production of Parsons’ marine steam turbine, 1894–1910 85 4.3 Actual production of Parsons’ marine steam turbine by ordering agent, 1894–1910 86 4.4 Parsons’ Patent No. 394 on the marine steam turbine 88 4.5 Cavitation experiment by C. A. Parsons 93 4.6 Resistance curve given to C. A. Parsons by R. E. Froude 98 5.1 Membership of the INA in Britain 133 5.2 Membership of the Shipbuilding Association in Japan 134 Tables 1.1 Main professional societies of science and technology established in Japan, 1875–1914 13 1.2 Main professional societies for engineering established in Britain, 1850–1900 15 2.1 Dates of model ship experiments and full-scale ship construction at Mitsubishi Nagasaki Shipyard, 1908–12 38 2.2 The composition of the Experimental Tank Unit, Mitsubishi Nagasaki Shipyard 40 viii List of Figures and Tables ix 2.3 Report from personnel stationed overseas, by the Chief Naval Architect, Yoichi Inagawa, ‘On the Experimental Tank’ 42 2.4 Division between imports and domestic production 43 2.5 Comparison table for the dimensions of the experimental tanks 43 3.1 A comparison of the performance of imported and domestically produced marine steam turbines for merchant ships 53 3.2 A comparison of the performance of imported and domestically produced marine steam turbines for warships 53 3.3 A comparison of the specifications of the Curtis and Parsons marine steam turbines 56 3.4 The main intermediate types of marine steam turbine produced in Japan until the Kanpontype was established 61 3.5 A comparison of the specifications of the Tangomaruand theTenyomaru 65 3.6 The specifications of the imported and domestically produced marine steam turbines for merchant ships 68 3.7 Professional careers of graduates from the Shipbuilding Department of the Imperial University of Tokyo, 1883–1903 75 4.1 Number of C. A. Parsons’ papers, by professional society, 1887–1929 90 4.2 The organization of the Parsons Marine Steam Turbine Company in 1898 94 4.3 Increase in the number of employees by unit at the Materials Testing Laboratory, Mitsubishi Nagasaki Shipyard 104 4.4 Characteristics of foreign and domestic metals for turbine blades 105 4.5 Main patents and inventions in Mitsubishi after the company regulation on inventions and patents 109 4.6 The organization of Mitsubishi Nagasaki Shipyard, as set out in 1908 110 5.1 Contributors to the NPL tank running costs 123 5.2 The organizational structure of the British National Experimental Tank established at the NPL in 1911 123 5.3 The organizational structure of the Japanese National Experimental Tank as established by the Ministry of Communications in 1930 128 5.4 Stipulation of the fees for tests carried out by the Mejiro tank for private companies 137 5.5 Number of ship model tests for private firms at the NPL 138 5.6 The employee structure of the National Experimental Tank at the NPL on its establishment in 1911 141