52278 DEVELOPMENT PRACTICE IN EDUCATION Teachers in Anglophone Africa Issues in Teacher Supply, Training, and Management Aidan Mulkeen Teachers in Anglophone Africa Teachers in Anglophone Africa ISSUES IN TEACHER SUPPLY, TRAINING, AND MANAGEMENT Aidan Mulkeen THE WORLD BANK Washington, DC ©2010 The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development / The World Bank 1818 H Street, NW Washington, DC 20433 Telephone 202-473-1000 Internet www.worldbank.org E-mail [email protected] All rights reserved. 1 2 3 4 :: 13 12 11 10 This volume is a product of the staff of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development / The World Bank. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this volume do not necessarily reflect the views of the Executive Directors of The World Bank or the governments they represent. The World Bank does not guarantee the accuracy of the data included in this work. 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All other queries on rights and licenses, including subsidiary rights, should be addressed to the Office of the Publisher, The World Bank, 1818 H Street NW, Washington, DC 20433, USA; fax: 202-522-2422; e-mail: [email protected]. ISBN: 978-0-8213-8053-6 eISBN: 978-0-8213-8071-0 DOI: 10.1596/978-0-8213-8053-6 Cataloging-in-Publication data is available from the Library of Congress Text photos: Aidan Mulkeen/World Bank Contents Foreword xi Acknowledgments xiii Abbreviations xv OVERVIEW 1 Supply 1 Deployment 2 Utilization 3 Impact of HIV 4 Teacher Training 4 Management 5 The Teacher Career Structure 6 Teacher Finance 7 Teacher Issues—An Interconnected System 8 Promising Practices 8 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION 13 Context: Teachers and Trends 15 Note 20 PART I. TEACHER PROVISION CHAPTER 2. TEACHER SUPPLY 23 Teacher Shortages 24 Subject-Specific Shortages 27 School Leavers as a Constraint on Teacher Training 28 Planning for Teacher Supply 30 Guidelines for Planning Teacher Supply 35 Directions for Policy Makers 38 v vi • Contents CHAPTER 3. TEACHER DEPLOYMENT: GETTING TEACHERS TO THE RIGHT PLACES 41 Uneven Teacher Distribution 42 Deployment Systems 45 Directions for Policy Makers 52 CHAPTER 4. TEACHER UTILIZATION 61 Teacher Workloads 62 Double-Shift Teaching 66 Multigrade Teaching 68 Directions for Policy Makers 68 Note 70 PART II. TEACHER TRAINING CHAPTER 5. PRE-SERVICE TEACHER TRAINING 73 Structure and Duration of Initial Teacher Training 73 Content of Initial Teacher Training 81 Teaching Practice 84 Teacher Trainers 87 Directions for Policy Makers 88 Note 90 CHAPTER 6. IN-SERVICE TRAINING FOR UNQUALIFIED AND UPGRADING TEACHERS 91 In-service Training for Unqualified Teachers 91 Upgrading Qualifications 95 In-service Continuing Professional Development (CPD) and Support Systems 96 Directions for Policy Makers 101 PART III. AFTER THEY ARE QUALIFIED: TEACHERS AS PROFESSIONALS CHAPTER 7. SUPERVISION OF TEACHERS 107 School Head Teachers 108 Supervision and Inspection 112 Teachers Unions 116 Community Involvement: PTAs and SMCs 118 Directions for Policy Makers 120 Note 122 Contents • vii CHAPTER 8. TEACHER ABSENCE, PAY DISTRIBUTION, AND DISCIPLINE 123 Teacher Absenteeism 123 Responses to Absenteeism 126 Ghost Teachers 131 Delivery of Pay 131 Disciplinary Systems 135 Directions for Policy Makers 136 CHAPTER 9. THE TEACHING CAREER 139 The Dominance of Permanent Public-Service Teachers 140 Teacher Salary Progression 142 Opportunities for Promotion 143 Paid Study Leave 146 Directions for Policy Makers 147 PART IV. FINANCING TEACHERS CHAPTER 10. TEACHER FINANCE 151 The Challenge of Education Finance 152 Primary Teacher Remuneration 155 Financing the Expansion of Secondary Education 161 Implications for Policy Makers 163 Note 164 PART V. CONCLUSION CHAPTER 11. CHALLENGES, TRENDS, AND PROMISING PRACTICES 167 Supply 167 Distribution 170 Utilization 172 Training 173 Management 175 Teacher Finance 179 Gender Perspective 180 HIV 180 Teacher Issues–An Interconnected System 182 Promising Practices 185 REFERENCES 189 INDEX 193 viii • Contents BOXES 2.1 How Many Teachers Are Needed? 32 2.2 Rapid Teacher Requirement Projection Model 36 2.3 Calculating Teacher Requirements Where Teachers Specialize 37 3.1 Gambia’s Special Allowance for Hardship Schools 50 4.1 Malawi: Teacher Utilization in Lumbadzi Primary School (Peri-Urban) 65 6.1 Zambia’s Hierarchy of CPD Support Structures 99 6.2 Lesotho: District Resource Teachers 100 7.1 Eritrea: The Teacher Supervision System 113 8.1 Why Choose Private Schools? 124 8.2 Uganda: Patterns of Teacher Absenteeism 126 10.1 Teacher Salaries Relative to GDP Per Capita 152 TABLES 1.1 Growth in Student Enrollment, 2000–06 17 1.2 Gross Enrollment Rates in the Eight Countries Studied 17 1.3 Pupil-Teacher Ratio in the Eight Countries Studied 17 1.4 Number of Teachers and the Proportion Who Were Qualified 18 1.5 Percentage of Teachers Who Were Female 19 1.6 Summary of HIV Data Related to Teachers 19 2.1 Output of Primary Teachers as a Percentage of the Primary Teacher Numbers 25 2.2 Intake to the Lower Basic, Primary Teachers Certificate Course in Gambia College, 2001–06 29 2.3 Annual Teacher Attrition Rates 33 2.4 Teacher Attrition in Lesotho, 2004: Reasons for Leaving 34 3.1 Malawi: Schools and PTR in Dziwe Zone, Blantyre Rural District 43 3.2 Percentage of Secondary Teachers Who Are Female in Selected Rural and Urban Areas 44 3.3 Language of Instruction, Summary of Practices 46 3.4 HIV and Deployment, Summary of Practices 46 3.5 Malawi: Teacher Numbers and PTR in Primary and Secondary Schools (EMIS 2006) 49 3.6 Comparison of Two Schools in Malawi 49 3.7 Lesotho: Distribution of Qualified Primary Teachers (2005 EMIS Data) 51 3.8 Zambia: Provincial Differences in Average PTR for Basic Schools (EMIS 2006) 52 3.9 Zambia: Availability of Staff Houses (EMIS 2006) 53 3.10 Summary of Housing Practices in the Case Study Countries 54 3.11 The Gambia: Scale of Additional Allowances Based on Geographical Location 57 3.12 Summary of Practices: Incentives for Teachers in Rural Areas 57 4.1 Official Weekly Teaching Hours for Teachers in Primary and Secondary Schools 62 4.2 Official Annual Teaching Hours for Teachers in Primary and Secondary Schools 63