latin grammar goal complete understanding .;:Iil.n the tansuase works . see grammar in real contexts . reach a high level of competence s*g{ga6dglerrurc#{ jiGfGEifrf?fill I3: Ei'", : r teach yourself v latin grammar gregory klyve Launched in 1938, the teach yourself series grew rapidly in response to the world's wartime needs. Loved and trusted by over 50 million readers, the series has continued to respond to society's changing interests and passions and now, 70 years on, includes over 500 titles, from Arabic and Beekeeping to Yoga and Zulu. What would you like to learn? be where you want to be with teach yourself For UK order enquiries: please contact Bookpoint Ltd, 130 Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, 0X14 4SB. Telephone: +44 (0) 1235 827720. Fax: +44 (0) 1235 400454. Lines are open 09.00-17.00, Monday to Saturday, with a 24-hour message answering service. 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Impression number 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 Year 2010 2009 2006 introduction 1 01 alphabet and pronunciation 4 02 verbs: essential terminology 6 03 present tense 1 8 04 present tense 2 10 05 future tense 1 12 06 future tense 2 14 07 imperfect tense 16 08 perfect tense 1 18 09 perfect tense 2 20 10 pluperfect tense 22 11 future perfect tense 24 12 to be (indicative) 26 13 nouns: essential terminology 28 14 first declension 30 15 second declension 1 32 16 second declension 2 34 17 third declension 1 36 18 third declension 2 38 19 fourth declension 40 20 fifth declension 42 21 Greek nouns 44 22 irregular nouns 46 23 nominative and vocative cases 48 24 accusative case 50 25 genitive case 1 52 26 genitive case 2 54 27 dative case 1 56 28 dative case 2 58 29 ablative case 1 60 30 ablative case 2 62 31 locative and expressions of time 64 32 prepositions 66 33 adjectives: first and second declension 68 34 adjectives: third declension 70 35 comparison of adjectives 72 36 adverbs 74 37 conjunctions 76 38 numerals 78 39 personal, reflexive and possessive pronouns 80 40 demonstrative and definitive pronouns 82 41 emphatic and relative pronouns 84 42 indefinite and interrogative pronouns 86 43 pronouns used as adjectives 88 44 participles 90 45 present, future and imperfect passive 92 46 perfect, future perfect and pluperfect passive 94 47 infinitives: formation 96 48 infinitives: usage 98 49 imperatives and direct commands 100 50 gerunds and supines 102 51 gerundives 104 52 subjunctive: present and imperfect 106 53 subjunctive: perfect and pluperfect 108 54 subjunctive: uses 110 55 deponent and semi-deponent verbs 112 56 impersonal verbs 114 57 defective verbs 116 58 irregular verbs: sum and possum 118 59 irregular verbs: volo and nolo 120 60 irregular verbs: malo, fio and edo 122 61 irregular verbs: eo and fero 124 62 direct questions 126 63 subordinate clauses 128 64 relative clauses 130 65 concessive and causal clauses 132 66 final clauses 134 67 consecutive clauses 136 68 temporal clauses 138 69 temporal cum clauses 140 70 ablative absolute 142 71 clauses of proviso, comparison and fear 144 72 clauses of doubting and preventing 146 73 quin 148 74 conditionals 1 150 75 conditionals 2 152 76 indirect statements 1 154 77 indirect statements 2 156 78 indirect questions 158 79 indirect commands and wishes 160 80 dates 162 81 money and measures 164 82 names and places 166 83 inscriptions 168 84 timeline 170 85 Latin today 172 key to the exercises 174 How to use this book Teach Yourself Latin Grammar takes you through the principal elements of Latin grammar in a graded series of units, starting with explanations and details of how Latin words are formed (known technically as accidence), from simple forms of verbs, through nouns, prepositions, adjectives, adverbs, conjunctions and pronouns to more complex forms of verbs, ending with an examination of the normal constructions found in Latin sentence structure (known technically as syntax). After the units on grammar there are some sections on Roman dates, money, weights and measures, names, history and the use of Latin today. It has been designed so that you can dip into the book at any point to study a particular piece of grammar, or progress through the book unit by unit from the beginning. It is assumed that you have access to a dictionary and that you will accumulate your own bank of Latin vocabulary as you work. Almost all the Latin words are translated for you. Remember that a dictionary will give all the various meanings of a word and you will need to pick the right one for the context. You can consolidate your knowledge by attempting the exercises which accompany each unit. These exercises are geared to that particular unit and contain tests on the grammar point which is being examined. Exercises may also contain simple grammatical elements met in previous units as the book progresses. A key with all the answers is provided at the back of the book. The contents of each unit will vary a little in size and difficulty and some important items require more than one unit. However, since each unit is only two pages long you will be able to find everything you need to understand the grammar point in a compact area. Clear cross-references are made to other units which further explain any important item which is mentioned but not under direct scrutiny. It is assumed that the reader does not have a knowledge of the technical terms used in grammar and so explanations for all of these are provided at appropriate points. If you are only just starting Latin, then try to become familiar with grammatical terms as you meet them in the course of the units. Most importantly, do not worry if the terms seem long winded. You will be able to cope with simple sentences fairly quickly. The wonderful thing about the Latin language is that it has a completely logical structure. Simply follow the examples and consolidation exercises carefully and remember that you are doing it at your own speed so there is no pressure of time and that you can always return to any unit to refresh your memory. If you already have some knowledge of Latin and are using this book for revision purposes or because you need to read Latin documents for work or pleasure, or just to brush up what you know, then you will find the layout straightforward. Exhaustive detail has been deliberately avoided as this can be very confusing. If you are reading a work of Latin literature, then you should always use a good published commentary on the work. This book does not examine things like literary techniques or the metres of Latin verse. An inflected language Latin is an inflected language (sometimes also called a radical language) which means that the endings of words change according to their usage. We have something like this in English. We usually change the end of a noun if we want it to refer to more than one thing; e.g. one cat: several cats. We change some nouns depending on whether they are masculine or feminine; e.g. emperor and empress. We sometimes alter the endings of our verbs depending on who is performing the action; e.g. I run, he runs. We also change our pronouns (I, he, she, it, we, they and who) depending on how they are being used in a sentence; e.g. I chase him then he chases me. In this sentence both I and me refer to the same person (myself) but the words are different because they are used differently. In 'I chase him' I am performing the action but in 'then he chases me' I am having the action performed upon me. Normally, however, we do not change the forms of words in English but rely upon word order to make our meaning clear. In Latin things are different. It is a language in which the start of a word, usually called the stem (sometimes also called the root), does not usually change but the endings of almost all words (sometimes also called inflections) do change according to how those words are being used. Word order is, therefore, not as important in Latin as it is in English and the verb usually comes at the end of a sentence. At first this can seem confusing but it is really a bit like a jigsaw puzzle. When you translate you must take care not to be too influenced by the word order. You will need to look up the meanings of the words and then check S their endings to find out how each one is being used, just like o. finding the corners, edges and middle of a jigsaw. g. 5' One very important thing to remember throughout is that there is no word for 'a' or 'the' in Latin. Latin sentences usually have a number of clauses. A clause is a group of words which form a sense unit and have a verb. One clause is always more important than the others and is called the main clause. The others are called subordinate clauses (see Unit 63 for a detailed account). The main clause is the one which will stand on its own and still make sense. Subordinate clauses do not make complete sense on their own. The verb of the main clause is called the main verb of a sentence. The remains of ancient Latin literature which have survived are as old as the third century BCE. Much of the best Latin owes an enormous amount to the literary influences of the Greeks. The surviving literature can be (roughly) divided into early, which includes the comedies of Plautus and Terence (220-160 BCE); the Ciceronian (or early golden) age 80-43 BCE, including Cicero, Caesar, Sallust, Lucretius and Catullus; the Augustan (or late golden) age 43 BCE-14 CE, including Virgil, Horace, Ovid and Livy and the silver age 14—120 CE including Seneca, Pliny, Tacitus, Juvenal, Lucan, Martial and Statius. One of the legacies of the Roman Empire in Europe was that Latin was used for centuries after 120 CE as the language of European scholarship and literature, for ecclesiastical, scientific, medical, documentary and philosophical purposes. It remains in use today for some scientific terms (particularly in botany) but there has also been a widespread revival of Latin for its usefulness as a universal language. People from countries the world ov"er read the weekly Latin news bulletin produced by the Finnish Broadcasting Corporation on the Internet (http://www.yle.fi/fbc/latini), which I strongly recommend. Abbreviations: abl. ablative nom. nominative ace accusative n. neuter dat. dative pi. plural f. feminine s. singular gen. genitive voc vocative m. masculine There are 24 letters in the Latin alphabet. The Romans had no j or w. In writing, capitals are used for proper nouns, adjectives and numerals; not to start sentences. ES Pronunciation There are no silent letters in Latin and long vowels take about twice as long to say as short ones. A a as in father when long, O o as in tone (although the but as in act when short French o in chose is closer) B b as in but when long, as in hot when C £ as in cut, not as in church, short cider or loch P g as in gat D d as in dog Q <j as in gueen and always E e as in prey when long, but followed by u, as in English as in jet when short. R r is always rolled, as in F f as in father Italian G g as in goat, not as in S s as in sun, not as in was, genius treasure or sugar H h as in have T t as in top, not as in motion I i as in machine when long, U u as in food when long but as in pit when short and as as in put when short y in yet when used as a V w as in wine, although the consonant Hindi pronunciation of y is K k as in king (a rare letter in closer Latin, occurring only in X x as in axe, not as in exact kalendae: first day of a Y y as in the French vu (this month) Greek letter [upsilon] was L 1 as in long used only in words of M m as in mother Greek origin) N n as in newt, but, before c, Z z as in zoo (this Greek letter g and qu it is pronounced [zeta] was used only in ng words of Greek origin) [^Diphthongs are combinations of vowels making one sound. In Latin they are all long: ae pronounced ai as in aisle, e.g. praeda —• booty au pronounced ou as in house, e.g. aurum —» gold oe pronounced oi as in boil, e.g. poena —» penalty ei pronounced ei as in reign. Only found in the exclamations ei! eia! heia! —• oh! aha! eu pronounced ew as in pew, e.g. seu —* whether ui pronounced wea as in weak, e.g. fiuk -* to this The diphthongs ei, eu and ui are rare. Mostly when these vowel combinations are found they are pronounced separately, as in tui —• yours (pronounced twoee), fluit —• it flows (flewit), mei —• mine (meyee) and deus -» god (deyus). When the u follows the letter q it is pronounced w, as in English.