Sustainable Development in Chemical Engineering Sustainable Development in Chemical Engineering Innovative Technologies Editors VINCENZO PIEMONTE University Campus Bio-Medico of Rome, Italy MARCELLO DE FALCO University Campus Bio-Medico of Rome, Italy ANGELO BASILE ITM-CNR, Rende (CS) Italy Thiseditionfirstpublished2013 2013JohnWiley&SonsLtd Registeredoffice:JohnWiley&SonsLtd,TheAtrium,SouthernGate,Chichester,WestSussex,PO198SQ,UnitedKingdom Fordetailsofourglobaleditorialoffices,forcustomerservicesandforinformationabouthowtoapplyforpermissionto reusethecopyrightmaterialinthisbookpleaseseeourwebsiteatwww.wiley.com. TherightoftheauthortobeidentifiedastheauthorofthisworkhasbeenassertedinaccordancewiththeCopyright, DesignsandPatentsAct1988. 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LibraryofCongressCataloging-in-PublicationDataappliedfor. AcataloguerecordforthisbookisavailablefromtheBritishLibrary. ISBN:978-1-119-95352-4 Setin10/12ptTimesbyLaserwordsPrivateLimited,Chennai,India Contents List of Contributors xiii Preface xv 1. Sustainable Development Strategies: An Overview 1 VincenzoPiemonte,MarcelloDeFalco,andAngeloBasile 1.1 Renewable Energies: State of the Art and Diffusion 1 1.2 Process Intensification 4 1.2.1 Process Intensifying Equipment 5 1.2.2 Process Intensifying Methods 6 1.3 Concept and Potentialities of Bio-based Platforms for Biomolecule Production 8 1.3.1 Biogas Platform 9 1.3.2 Sugar Platform 10 1.3.3 Vegetable Oil Platform 10 1.3.4 Algae Oil Platform 11 1.3.5 Lignin Platform 11 1.3.6 Opportunities and Growth Predictions 12 1.4 Soil and Water Remediation 13 1.4.1 Soil Remediation 18 1.4.2 Water Remediation 18 Acknowledgement 18 References 18 2. Innovative Solar Technology: CSP Plants for Combined Production of Hydrogen and Electricity 25 MarcelloDeFalco 2.1 Principles 25 2.2 Plant Configurations 28 2.2.1 Solar Membrane Reactor Steam Reforming 29 2.2.2 Solar Enriched Methane Production 31 2.3 Mathematical Models 33 2.3.1 Solar Enriched Methane Reactor Modelling 34 2.3.2 Membrane Reactor Modelling 36 2.3.3 WGS, Separation Units and the Electricity Production Model 38 2.4 Plant Simulations 39 vi Contents 2.4.1 EM Reactor 39 2.4.2 Membrane Reactor 41 2.4.3 Global Plant Simulations and Comparison 45 2.5 Conclusions 46 Nomenclature 47 References 48 3. Strategies for Increasing Electrical Energy Production from Intermittent Renewables 51 AlessandroFranco 3.1 Introduction 51 3.2 Penetration of Renewable Energies into the Electricity Market and Issues Related to Their Development: Some Interesting Cases 55 3.3 An Approach to Expansion of RES and Efficiency Policy in an Integrated Energy System 57 3.3.1 Optimization Problems 59 3.3.2 Operational Limits and Constraints 61 3.3.3 Software Tools for Analysis 62 3.4 Analysis of Possible Interesting Scenarios for Increasing Penetration of RES 62 3.4.1 Renewable Energy Expansion in a Reference Scenario 63 3.4.2 Increasing Thermoelectric Generation Flexibility 63 3.4.3 Effects of Introducing the Peak/Off-Peak Charge Tariff 64 3.4.4 Introducing Electric Traction in the Transport Sector: Connection between Electricity and Transport Systems 64 3.4.5 Increasing Industrial CHP Electricity Production 65 3.4.6 Developing the Concept of ‘Virtual Power Plants’ 66 3.5 Analysis of a Meaningful Case Study: The Italian Scenario 66 3.5.1 Renewable Energy Expansion in a Reference Scenario 68 3.5.2 Increasing Thermoelectric Generation Flexibility 69 3.5.3 Effects of Introducing a Peak/Off-Peak Charge Tariff 69 3.5.4 Introduction of a Connection between Electricity and Transport Systems: The Increase in Electric Cars 70 3.5.5 Increasing Industrial CHP Electricity Production 71 3.6 Analysis and Discussion 74 3.7 Conclusions 75 Nomenclature and Abbreviations 76 References 77 4. The Smart Grid as a Response to Spread the Concept of Distributed Generation 81 YiDing,JacobØstergaard,SalvadorPinedaMorente,andQiuweiWu 4.1 Introduction 81 4.2 Present Electric Power Generation Systems 82 Contents vii 4.3 A Future Electrical Power Generation System witha High Penetration of Distributed Generation and Renewable Energy Resources 83 4.4 Integration of DGs into Smart Grids for Balancing Power 86 4.5 The Bornholm System – A “Fast Track” for Smart Grids 91 4.6 Conclusions 92 References 93 5. Process Intensification in the Chemical Industry: A Review 95 StefanoCurcio 5.1 Introduction 95 5.2 Different Approaches to Process Intensification 96 5.3 Process Intensification as a Valuable Tool for the Chemical Industry 97 5.4 PI Exploitation in the Chemical Industry 100 5.4.1 Structured Packing for Mass Transfer 100 5.4.2 Static Mixers 100 5.4.3 Catalytic Foam Reactors 100 5.4.4 Monolithic Reactors 100 5.4.5 Microchannel Reactors 101 5.4.6 Non-Selective Membrane Reactors 101 5.4.7 Adsorptive Distillation 102 5.4.8 Heat-Integrated Distillation 102 5.4.9 Membrane Absorption/Stripping 102 5.4.10 Membrane Distillation 103 5.4.11 Membrane Crystallization 104 5.4.12 Distillation-Pervaporation 104 5.4.13 Membrane Reactors 104 5.4.14 Heat Exchanger Reactors 104 5.4.15 Simulated Moving Bed Reactors 105 5.4.16 Gas-Solid-Solid Trickle Flow Reactor 105 5.4.17 Reactive Extraction 106 5.4.18 Reactive Absorption 106 5.4.19 Reactive Distillation 106 5.4.20 Membrane-Assisted Reactive Distillation 106 5.4.21 Hydrodynamic Cavitation Reactors 106 5.4.22 Pulsed Compression Reactor 107 5.4.23 Sonochemical Reactors 107 5.4.24 Ultrasound-Enhanced Crystallization 108 5.4.25 Electric Field-Enhanced Extraction 108 5.4.26 Induction and Ohmic Heating 108 5.4.27 Microwave Drying 109 5.4.28 Microwave-Enhanced Separation and Microwave Reactors 109 5.4.29 Photochemical Reactors 110 5.4.30 Oscillatory Baffled Reactor Technologies 111 5.4.31 Reverse Flow Reactor Operation 111 viii Contents 5.4.32 Pulse Combustion Drying 111 5.4.33 Supercritical Separation 112 5.5 Conclusions 113 References 113 6. Process Intensification in the Chemical and Petrochemical Industry 119 AngeloBasile,AdolfoIulianelli,andSimonaLiguori 6.1 Introduction 119 6.2 Process Intensification 120 6.2.1 Definition and Principles 120 6.2.2 Components 121 6.3 The Membrane Role 122 6.4 Membrane Reactor 124 6.4.1 Membrane Reactor and Process Intensification 126 6.4.2 Membrane Reactor Benefits 127 6.5 Applications of Membrane Reactors in the Petrochemical Industry 128 6.5.1 Dehydrogenation Reactions 129 6.5.2 Oxidative Coupling of Methane 134 6.5.3 Methane Steam Reforming 135 6.5.4 Water Gas Shift 137 6.6 Process Intensification in Chemical Industry 139 6.6.1 Reactive Distillation 139 6.6.2 Reactive Extraction 140 6.6.3 Reactive Adsorption 140 6.6.4 Hybrid Separation 141 6.7 Future Trends 141 6.8 Conclusion 142 Nomenclature 143 References 143 7. Production of Bio-Based Fuels: Bioethanol and Biodiesel 153 SudipChakraborty,RanjanaDasMondal,DebolinaMukherjee,and ChiranjibBhattacharjee 7.1 Introduction 153 7.1.1 Importance of Biofuel as a Renewable Energy Source 153 7.2 Production of Bioethanol 155 7.2.1 Bioethanol from Biomass: Production, Processes, and Limitations 156 7.2.2 Substrate 157 7.2.3 Future Prospects for Bioethanol 164 7.3 Biodiesel and Renewable Diesels from Biomass 166 7.3.1 Potential of Vegetable Oil as a Diesel Fuel Substitute 168 7.3.2 Vegetable Oil Ester Based Biodiesel 169 7.3.3 Several Approaches to Biodiesel Synthesis 170 Contents ix 7.3.4 Sustainability of Biofuel Use 171 7.3.5 Future Prospects 171 7.4 Perspective 172 List of Acronyms 172 References 173 8. InsidetheBioplasticsWorld:AnAlternativetoPetroleum-based Plastics 181 VincenzoPiemonte 8.1 Bioplastic Concept 181 8.2 Bioplastic Production Processes 183 8.2.1 PLA Production Process 183 8.2.2 Starch-based Bioplastic Production Process 185 8.3 Bioplastic Environmental Impact: Strengths and Weaknesses 186 8.3.1 Life Cycle Assessment Methodology 186 8.3.2 The Ecoindicator 99 Methodology: An End-Point Approach 187 8.3.3 Case Study 1: PLA versus PET Bottles 189 8.3.4 Case Study 2: Mater-Bi versus PE Shoppers 191 8.3.5 Land Use Change (LUC) Emissions and Bioplastics 193 8.4 Conclusions 195 Acknowledgements 196 References 196 9. Biosurfactants 199 MariaGiovannaMartinotti,GiannaAllegrone,MassimoCavallo,and LetiziaFracchia 9.1 Introduction 199 9.2 State of the Art 200 9.2.1 Glycolipids 201 9.2.2 Lipopeptides 201 9.2.3 Fatty Acids, Neutral Lipids, and Phospholipids 204 9.2.4 Polymeric Biosurfactants 204 9.2.5 Particulate Biosurfactants 205 9.3 Production Technologies 205 9.3.1 Use of Renewable Substrates 205 9.3.2 Medium Optimization 209 9.3.3 Immobilization 211 9.4 Recovery of Biosurfactants 212 9.5 Application Fields 213 9.5.1 Environmental Applications 213 9.5.2 Biomedical Applications 217 9.5.3 Agricultural Applications 220 9.5.4 Biotechnological and Nanotechnological Applications 221 9.6 Future Prospects 225 References 225 x Contents 10. Bioremediation of Water: A Sustainable Approach 241 SudipChakraborty,JayaSikder,DebolinaMukherjee,MrinalKantiMandal, andD.LawrenceArockiasamy 10.1 Introduction 241 10.2 State-of-the-Art: Recent Development 242 10.3 Water Management 247 10.4 Overview of Bioremediation in Wastewater Treatment and Ground Water Contamination 250 10.5 Membrane Separation in Bioremediation 252 10.6 Case Studies 256 10.6.1 Bioremediation of Heavy Metals 256 10.6.2 Bioremediation of Nitrate Pollution 258 10.6.3 Bioremediation in the Petroleum Industry 259 10.7 Conclusions 260 List of Acronyms 261 References 262 11. Effective Remediation of Contaminated Soils by Eco-Compatible Physical, Biological, and Chemical Practices 267 FilomenaSanninoandAlessandroPiccolo 11.1 Introduction 267 11.2 Biological Methods (Microorganisms, Plants, Compost, and Biochar) 269 11.2.1 Microorganisms 269 11.2.2 Plants 273 11.2.3 Plant-Microorganism Associations: Mycorrhizal Fungi 275 11.2.4 Compost and Biochar 276 11.3 Physicochemical Methods 277 11.3.1 Humic Substances as Natural Surfactants 278 11.4 Chemical Methods 280 11.4.1 Metal-Porphyrins 282 11.4.2 Nanocatalysts 284 11.5 Conclusions 286 List of Symbols and Acronyms 288 Acknowledgments 289 References 289 12. Nanoparticles as a Smart Technology for Remediation 297 GiuseppeChidichimo,DanielaCupelli,GiovanniDeFilpo, PatriziaFormoso,andFiorePasqualeNicoletta 12.1 Introduction 297 12.2 Silica Nanoparticles for Wastewater Treatment 298 12.2.1 Silica Nanoparticles: An Overview 298 12.2.2 Preparation of Nanosilica 299 12.2.3 Removal of Dyes by Silica Nanoparticles 299 12.2.4 Removal of Metallic Pollutants by Silica Nanoparticles 303 Contents xi 12.3 Magnetic Nanoparticles: Synthesis, Characterization and Applications 305 12.3.1 Magnetic Nanoparticles: An Overview 305 12.3.2 Synthesis of Magnetic Nanoparticles 306 12.3.3 Characterization of Magnetic Nanoparticles 315 12.3.4 Applications of Magnetic Nanoparticles 316 12.4 Titania Nanoparticles in Environmental Photo-Catalysis 317 12.4.1 Advanced Oxidation Processes 317 12.4.2 TiO Assisted Photo-Catalysis 320 2 12.4.3 Developments in TiO Assisted Photo-Catalysis 324 2 12.5 Future Prospects: Is Nano Really Good for the Environment? 326 12.6 Conclusions 328 List of Abbreviations 328 References 329 Index 349