AnimalConservation. Print ISSN1367-9430 Survival on the ark: life-history trends in captive parrots A.M.Young1,E.A.Hobson1,L.BingamanLackey2&T.F.Wright1 1DepartmentofBiology,NewMexicoStateUniversity,LasCruces,NM,USA 2InternationalSpeciesInformationSystem,Eagan,MN,USA Keywords Abstract captivebreeding;ISIS;life-history;lifespan; MembersoftheorderPsittaciformes(parrotsandcockatoos)areamongthemost parrot;Psittaciformes. long-lived and endangered avian species. Comprehensive data on lifespan and breedingarecriticaltosettingconservationpriorities,parameterizingpopulation Correspondence viabilitymodels,andmanagingcaptiveandwildpopulations.Tomeettheseneeds, AnnaM.Young,DepartmentofBiology, MSC3AF,NewMexicoStateUniversity, we analyzed 83212 life-history records of captive birds from the International LasCruces,NM88003,USA Species Information System (ISIS) and calculated lifespan and breeding para- Tel:+15756464863; metersfor260speciesofparrots(71%ofextantspecies).Speciesvariedwidelyin Fax:+15756465665 lifespan,withlargerspeciesgenerallylivinglongerthansmallerones.Thehighest Email:[email protected] maximumlifespanrecordedwas92yearsinCacatuamoluccensis,butonly11other specieshadamaximumlifespanover50years.Ourdataindicatethatwhilesome Editor:IainGordon captive individuals are capable of reaching extraordinary ages, median lifespans AssociateEditor:IainGordon aregenerallyshorterthanwidelyassumed,albeitwithsomeincreaseseeninbirds presentlyheldinzoos.Speciesthatlivedlongerandbredlaterinlifetendedtobe Received18January2011;accepted13June more threatened according to IUCN classifications. We documented several 2011 individualsofmultiplespeciesthatwereabletobreedformorethantwodecades, butthemajorityofcladesexaminedhadmuchshorteractivereproductionperiods. doi:10.1111/j.1469-1795.2011.00477.x Post-breeding periods were surprisingly long and in many cases surpassed the durationofactivebreeding.OurresultsdemonstratethevalueoftheISISdatabase toestimatelife-historydataforanat-risktaxonthatisdifficulttostudyinthewild, andprovidelife-historydatathatiscrucialforpredictivemodelingoffuturespecies endangermentandproactivelymanagementofcaptivepopulationsofparrots. Introduction management of wild populations and for setting manage- Earth is facing a biodiversity crisis of enormous propor- mentprioritiesforcaptivepopulations(Condeetal.,2011). tions, with extinction rates estimated to be 1000–10000 Oneimportantstepinmanagingcaptivepopulationsisto timesgreaterthannormalbackgroundrates(Wilson,1991; assessconservationprioritiesatthelargertaxonomicscales Brooksetal.,2006).Zoosandaquariumsplayacriticalrole of family or order. Zoos and aquariums have organized in conserving biodiversity (Miller et al., 2004) through TaxonAdvisoryGroups(TAGs)tosetprioritiesfor main- research, education, conservation of habitat and genomic taining and managing captive populations across higher- materials, and captive breeding (Fischer & Lindenmayer, leveltaxa.TAGsdeterminewhichspeciestopropagatebased 2000; Price & Soorae, 2003; Foose & Wiese, 2006; Mace primarily oncaptive populationnumbersandconservation etal.,2007;Waltersetal.,2010).Captivebreedingmaintains status (Wilkinson, 2000; Hutchins, 2003; Association of viable populations and in some notable cases provides the Zoos and Aquariums (AZA), 2007). The TAGs further only source of individuals for reintroductions (Beck et al., dividespeciesintoRegionalCollectionPlans(RCBs)which 1994; Seddon, Armstrong & Maloney, 2007), as with the are represented worldwide. All of these programs were black-footed ferret Mustela nigripes (Biggins et al., 1999), initiatedinthe1980stotrackandmanagethegeneticsand California condor Gymnogyps californianus (Snyder & demographicsofcaptiveanimalpopulationsinstudbooksso Snyder,1989),Przewalski’shorseEquuscaballusprzewalskii astomeetoverallmanagementgoalsforthatspecies(Hutch- (Bouman,2000)andArabianoryxOryxleucoryx(Rahbek, ins&Wiese,1991).AcriticalroleforTAGsistoprioritize 1993).Anotherimportant,albeitlesswidelyrecognized,role efforts across different species because both space and for captive populations is to provide behavioral, physiolo- fundingforcaptiveanimalsarelimited(Hutchins&Wiese, gical and life-history data that are difficult, costly or time 1991;Smithetal.,2002;Hutchins,2003;Baker,2007). consumingtoobtaininfieldstudies(seeRicklefs&Cadena, TAGsfacetheissueofsurplusanimals,animalsthathave 2007). These data are useful for predictive modeling and already made a genetic contribution to the program either AnimalConservation]](2011)1–16 (cid:2)c 2011TheAuthors.AnimalConservation (cid:2)c 2011TheZoologicalSocietyofLondon 1 Life-historytrendsincaptiveparrots Youngetal. directly or via kin (Hutchins & Wiese, 1991; Lindburg & Efforts to set conservation priorities for parrots have Lindburg, 1995), and are now consuming resources that been hampered by a lack of life-history data. While there couldotherwisebeinvestedinbreedinganimalsthatwould areafewexemplarystudiesoflife-historyandreproduction further enhance genetic diversity. To allocate limited zoo in wild populations (Saunders, 1982; Buckland, Rowley & resources optimally, TAGs should work with RCPs to Williams, 1983; Rowley, 1983; Powlesland et al., 1992; predict and control numbers of surplus animals (Lacy, Sandercocketal.,2000;Heinsohn&Legge,2003;Murphy, 1995; Lindburg & Lindburg, 1995; Graham, 1996), a task Legge&Heinsohn,2003;Renton&Salinas-Melgoza,2004; which requires comprehensive data on a species’ lifespan, Beissinger et al., 2008; Koenig, 2008; Holdsworth, Dett- breeding parameters, IUCN status, current numbers and mann&Baker,inpress),itisdifficulttoageadultsandfield demographics. Demographic and reproductive data are studiesaregenerallyshortindurationrelativetolifespans. especiallyimportantforcaptivebreedingprograms(Hutch- While data from captive individuals may not precisely ins&Wiese,1991;Hutchins,2003),andauthorsofcaptive- predictlifespansinwildanimalsgiventhedifferentstresses managementmanualshavebeenadvisedtoincorporatedata faced by each, a significant positive relationship between onlifespananddurationofactivereproductiontoimprove captiveandwildmaximumlifespanshasbeendemonstrated breedingandreintroductionefforts(Jackson,2003;Seddon generallyinbirds(Wasser&Sherman,2010)ashavesimilar etal.,2007).Theserecommendationshavebeenfollowedin rates of actuarial senescence (Ricklefs, 2000). Previous a few cases, most notably for elephants (Wiese & Willis, studies in parrots have provided some data on captive 2004;Wiese&Willis,2006;Hutchins&Thompson,2008). lifespans:Brouweretal.(2000)reportedmaximumrecorded However, the comprehensive life-history data needed ages for 176 species and subspecies of parrots, while Van- for optimal management of captive populations are not streels et al. (2010) examined lifespans of confiscated wild- readily available for most taxa (Baker, 2007; Hutchins & caught parrots in a Brazilian zoo. Neither study reported Thompson,2008). reproductive parameters.Parrotstudbooksaremaintained Hereweprovidecomprehensivelifespanandreproductive regionally and internationally, but less than 10% of all data for the order Psittaciformes (parrots and cockatoos, parrot species and subspecies housed in zoos are currently hereafter‘parrots’).Theparrotsareanimportantgroupin representedbystudbooksworldwide(L.BingamanLackey, which to investigate general patterns of captive longevity pers.obs.).Insum,thesesourcesprovidevaluableinforma- and breeding. The order contains a high proportion of tionforsomespecies,butthereremainsapressingneedfor endangered species, with 36% of the 365 extant species of comprehensivelife-historydatafortheorderasawhole. parrots (Forshaw & Knight, 2006) listed as being at risk The ISIS database contains thousands of records of (IUCN,2009) and at least 18confirmed extinctions by the parrotbirths,deathsandreproductioncontributedbyzoos endofthe20thcentury,makingparrotsthemostthreatened and other animal holding collections from c. 845 member specioseorderofbirds(Forshaw&Knight,2006).Theyare institutions in 80 countries (ISIS, 2009). This database alsothelongest-livedorderofbirdsfortheirsize(Prinzinger, representsawealthofvaluableinformationonparrots,and 1993) with some reported lifespans exceeding 50years many other taxa, which has been largely untapped by the (Brouwer et al., 2000). Furthermore, they are commonly zoologicalandscientificcommunity. heldincaptivity,withupwardsof20000parrotshousedin We provide a species-level analysis of ISIS records to zoos and other animal holding facilities [International present comprehensive life-history data for parrots. We SpeciesInformationSystem(ISIS),2009]andmillionsmore collateddatafromover87000individualsrepresentingover heldinprivatehands(WorldParrotTrust,2009).Successful 260speciesofparrotsfromtheISISdatabasetocharacterize reintroductions with captive bred parrots are challenging lifespanandbreedingparametersforeachspecies,examine (Snyder et al., 1996), but feasible (Sanz & Grajal, 1998; generalpatternsacrossmajorcladesofparrots,andtestthe Collazo et al., 2003; Brightsmith et al., 2005; White Jr, effectsofmassandsexonlifespan. Collazo&Vilella,2005).Themajorityofbirdsupplementa- tion in the wild has come from captive breeding programs Methods (Fischer&Lindenmayer,2000),buttheseeffortsarestymied byalackofcaptivebreedingpopulationsformanyspeciesof Datacoding highconservationconcern.Instead,thecurrentzoopopula- tionofparrotsisbiasedtowardlargespeciesthataremore We compiled individual lifespan records representing all attractive to humans (Frynta et al., 2010). While the con- available parrot species from ISIS. We used Forshaw & ventional role of zoos in the past has been entertainment Knight(2006)asthetaxonomicauthorityforcommonand (Hatchwelletal.,2007),theWorldAssociationofZoosand scientificnames.Ouronlydeparturefromtheclassification Aquariums recently asserted that the ‘‘major goal of zoos of Forshaw & Knight (2006) was to elevate the three andaquariumswillbetointegrateallaspectsoftheirwork subspecies of rosellas under Platycercus elegans to full with conservation activities’’ (WAZA, 2005). Overall, the species based on Joseph et al., (2008): the crimson rosella large numbers, long lifespans and high level of endanger- P. elegans, the yellow rosella Platycercus flaveolus and the mentofparrotsresultsinahighburdenonspaceinzoosand orange-redandyellowrosellaPlatycercusadelaidae;other- a critical need to set breeding and husbandry goals on the wise we did not distinguish between subspecies. Individual basisofconservationpriorities. birds that hatched in an ISIS facility received a HATCH 2 AnimalConservation]](2011)1–16 (cid:2)c 2011TheAuthors.AnimalConservation (cid:2)c 2011TheZoologicalSocietyofLondon Youngetal. Life-historytrendsincaptiveparrots date,whilethosethatweretransferredintoanISISfacility sionsoflogofmassversuslogofmaximumlifespan,median from a non-ISIS institution received an IN date. Birds adult lifespan and median adult age. Least-squares regres- transferred out of an ISIS facility received an OUT date, sionsofmaximumlifespanversusmedianadultlifespanand whereas birds that died in an ISIS facility received a medianadultagewereperformedonlogtransformeddata. DEATHdate.Weeliminatedindividualswithrecordsthat Positive residuals from these regressions indicated species hadanINorHATCHdatebeforethe1800s,orwhichwere with a single individual, represented by the maximum life- missing these dates entirely. We excluded individuals re- span,thatlivedsubstantiallylongerthantheirconspecifics, cordedassurvivinglessthanonedayfromfurtheranalysis. represented by median adult lifespan or age; negative Sorting and formatting of the data were conducted with residuals indicated species with a median adult lifespan or Access 2003 (Microsoft Inc., Redmond, WA, USA), and age that was closer to the maximum lifespan within that statistical analyses were runusing JMP 8.0 (SAS Institute, species. Cary,NC,USA). Lifespantrendsforclades Lifespanacrossspecies In addition to the summary statistics described across species,weexamineddataforspecieswithinselectedclades Torevealtrendsinbasiclifespandataacrossspecies,wefirst of particular interest to zoos and captive population man- calculated the median lifespan and maximum lifespan for agers. These clades were (1) Cacatua and allies (Cacatua, each species. Preliminary analysis indicated that many Callocephalon, Eolophus); (2) Trichoglossus and allies species followed a Type III survivorship curve (Ricklefs, (Chalcopsitta, Eos, Trichoglossus); (3) Platycercus and 2008),withhighinitialmortalitythatreachedanasymptote allies(Barnardius,Platycercus,Psephotus,Purpureicephalus); at 4years of age. Thus we calculated lifespan statistics on (4) Ara and allies (Ara, Orthopsittaca, Propyrrhura); twodifferentdatasets:(1)allindividualswholivedpasttheir (5) Aratinga; (6) Amazona. We again excluded species that firstday;(2)individualswhosurvivedtoage4yearsorolder. hadfewerthan20individualrecordsfromtheseanalyses.A Four years exceeds the age of first reproduction for many generalizedlinear model(GLM)wasperformedto testfor species included in the analysis, but preliminary analyses thejointeffectsofmassandcladeonthemeansofmaximum found this age to be the best single threshold for avoiding lifespan, median adult lifespan and median adult age and juvenile mortality across all 260 species analyzed. We also Tukey–Kramer HSD was used for post hoc comparison calculated the median living adult age for individuals that betweenpairsofclades. werestillaliveasof24March2008asameasureoflifespan forthecurrentlylivingcaptivepopulation. Breedingparameters We calculated the median instead of the mean as an indicator of central tendencies because the lifespan data To describe breeding parameters for each species, we ana- were non-normally distributed and exhibited a positively lyzed ISIS breeding information for female parrots. Males skewedunimodaldistribution(Zar,1999).Whilewereport were not included in this analysis because paternity could these summary statistics for all species, for the purpose of not be unambiguously determined. For these analyses we statistical tests of life-history relationships we excluded excludedspecieswithfewerthanfiveindividualstomaintain species with fewer than 20 individual records to increase an adequate sample size while minimizing the effect of reliabilityofthedataandensurethatgeneraltrendswould aberrantindividuals.Severalothertypesofexclusionswere notbedistortedbyafewaberrantindividuals.Wetestedthe performedonthebreedingdatatobalancemaximizingthe effect of sex on the maximum and median lifespan by number of records available for analysis with maintaining performing the non-parametric Wilcoxon signed-rank test, accurate and conservative estimates of reproductive para- which treated the two sexes of each species as a paired meters(summarizedinTable1).Wecalculatedmediansof comparison(Zar,1999).Wethenexaminedtherelationship the age of first breeding, age of last breeding, duration of between body size and lifespan with least-squares regres- active breeding and duration of post-breeding. Values for Table1. Criteriaforcalculationofbreedingparameters Parametersused Typesofindividualrecordsincludedinanalysis Ageoffirstbreeding KnownHATCHdate,ageatfirstbreeding40 BirdsthatreproducedwithinanISISfacility Ageatlastbreeding BothHATCHandINdateusedifageatlastbreeding40 Birdswhoselastreproductionwasaftertheirtransferinto anISISfacility Durationofactive BothHATCHandINdateusedifageoffirst BirdsthatreproducedwithinanISISfacility,included reproduction reproduction40 durations=0,whereanindividualreproducedonlyonce Durationofpost- BothHATCHandINdateusedifageatlastbreeding40, Birdswhoselastreproductionwasaftertheirtransferinto activereproduction bothDEATHandOUTdateused anISISfacility,includeddurations=0,whereanindividual diedonthedayoflastreproduction ISIS,InternationalSpeciesInformationSystem. AnimalConservation]](2011)1–16 (cid:2)c 2011TheAuthors.AnimalConservation (cid:2)c 2011TheZoologicalSocietyofLondon 3 Life-historytrendsincaptiveparrots Youngetal. ageoflastbreedingareconservativeestimatesasbirdswith (males=9.12(cid:3)3.19, females=8.93(cid:3)3.09; z =1671.50, 168 an IN date were treated as newly hatched birds. Values of P=0.0049) and median living adult age (males= the post-breeding period are also conservative because we 11.37(cid:3)5.00, females=11.15(cid:3)4.91; z =488.00, P= 97 treatedindividualstransferredoutofthesystemasdeaths. 0.0490)withmaleslivinglongeronaverage(Fig.2). Aone-wayANOVAwasperformedtotestfordifferencesin Least-squaresregressionsoflogmaximumlifespanonlog themeansofthesefourbreedingparametersamongthesix median adult lifespan and log median adult age revealed majorclades. that both were significant predictors of maximum lifespan (lifespan: F1,167=78.56, Po0.0001, R2=0.32; age: Conservationstatus F1,96=42.75, Po0.0001, R2=0.31; Fig. 3). For both re- gressions the cockatoos were the most notable positive Todeterminewhetherconservationstatusisassociatedwith outliers. particular demographic parameters, one-way ANOVAs were conducted to test for an effect of IUCN status on Lifespantrendsforclades lifespan(maximumandmedianadult)andmedianbreeding variables (age of first and last breeding, duration of active Our selected clades of parrots differed in most lifespan breedingandpost-breeding). parameters. A one-way ANOVA testing for differences among clades in the means of maximum lifespan Results (F5,77=13.27, Po0.0001), median adult lifespan (F5,69=15.65, Po0.0001) and median adult age Lifespanacrossspecies (F5,37=112.14, Po0.0001) indicated that clades differed significantlyintheseparameters(Fig.4).Toassesswhether Wecompiled 87777individualparrotrecordsrepresenting these differences could be attributed to the size differences 262 species (72% of all parrot species) from ISIS. After amongclades,bothcladeandweightwererunasfactorsina excludingthoseindividualshatchedbeforethe1800sorthat GLM. There was no significant interaction between clade failed to survive their first day, and species in which no andweightformaximumlifespan(w =5.35,P=0.3741); 5,71 individualslivedpastayear,83212individualsrepresenting when this interaction term was removed and the GLM 260speciesremainedforanalysis.Parrotspeciesincaptivity rerun, both clade (w5,68=32.07, Po0.0001), and weight ranged dramatically in their maximum and median life- (w1,68=21.66, Po0.0001), had a significant effect on max- spans.Thehighestmaximumlifespanrecordedwas92years imum lifespan. In contrast, there was a significant interac- forthesalmon-crestedcockatooCacatuamoluccensis.Only tion for median adult lifespan (w =16.86, P=0.0048), 5,63 12species(o5%ofthe260species)hadanindividuallive but neither weight (w1,63=3.69, P=0.0547) nor clade past50years of age. Of allthe species heldin ISIS institu- (w =5.71, P=0.3357) had significant effects with this 5,63 tions,50%neverhadanindividuallivebeyond22yearsof interaction term in the model. There were insufficient age, and only 30% of these species had a median adult degrees of freedom to run a GLM with an interaction for lifespan Z10years, even after limiting data to individuals median adult age, but the effect of clade was significant who survived juvenile mortality (Z4years). In contrast, (w5,36=101.88, Po0.0001) while that of weight was not when only living animals were considered, 58% of species (w =0.56, P=0.4544). The Cacatua clade (cockatoos) 1,36 had a median age Z10years (Table 2, see supporting showed the greatest mean of maximum lifespan at informationTableS1formedianswithquartiles). 50.78years.Incontrast,theAracladehadthehighestmean Whenfurtherexcludingspeciesthatdonothaveatleast ofmedianadultlifespanat14.31years.Overall,theCacatua 20 individual records, 82777 individuals from 199 species clade included some of the longest-lived individuals in the remained in the dataset used for the following lifespan entiredatabase,butoutofthespeciesheldincaptivity,65% analyses. Matched pairs analysis indicated that living ofthemneverhadanindividuallivepast50yearsold.Mean adult median age is significantly different than median median adult lifespan for this clade was notably low in adult lifespan (age=11.12(cid:3)4.79, lifespan=8.81(cid:3)2.62; captivity(10.36years),significantlylessthantheAraclade, z97=2036.00,Po0.0001)withlivingadultstodaysurviving and did not differ from the Aratinga or Amazona clades longer on average than adults collectively over the last whosemeanmaximumlifespanswere15–25yearslessthan 200years. Least-squares regressions of log maximum life- that of the cockatoos. The median age of living birds is span and log median adult lifespan on log body mass higherthanthemedianlifespanofallbirdsforallsixclades, revealedthatmasswasasignificantpredictorofmaximum butthisincreaseismuchlessdramaticinthecockatoosthan lifespan(F1,195=148.79,Po0.0001,R2=0.43;Fig.1)med- inAra,AratingaandAmazona(Fig.4). ian adult lifespan (F1,167=182.65, Po0.0001, R2=0.52) andmedianadultage(F1,96=71.11,Po0.0001,R2=0.43; Breedingparameters supporting information Fig. S1) such that larger species weregenerallylongerlivedthansmallerspecies. Breeding parameters in captivity varied greatly across the Matched pairs analysis revealed that sex affected max- 193speciesforwhichbreedingdatawasavailable(support- imum lifespan (males=24.79(cid:3)12.58, females=23.05(cid:3) ing information TableS2).Whenrestrictedto specieswith 12.52; z196=3027.00, Po0.0001), median adult lifespan data for Z5 individuals, the lowest median age at first 4 AnimalConservation]](2011)1–16 (cid:2)c 2011TheAuthors.AnimalConservation (cid:2)c 2011TheZoologicalSocietyofLondon Youngetal. Life-historytrendsincaptiveparrots Table2.Lifespansummaryacrossspecies(inyears) Lifespan:alla Lifespan:adultsZ4 Age:adultsZ4b Lifespan: IUCN Speciescommonname Scientificname maximum n Median n Median n Median statusc Palmcockatoo Proboscigeraterrimus 39.97 522 5.29 299 11.60 144 13.30 LC Yellow-tailedblackcockatoo Calyptorhynchusfunereus 47.41 324 2.84 136 9.78 63 10.95 LC Red-tailedblackcockatoo Calyptorhynchusbanksii 55.26 354 4.20 180 11.84 82 13.02 LC Glossyblackcockatoo Calyptorhynchuslathami 37.72 41 5.32 22 8.15 13 9.07 LC Ganggangcockatoo Callocephalonfimbriatum 27.57 291 2.07 96 9.73 25 13.77 LC Galah Eolophusroseicapilla 72.82 1889 2.00 687 9.33 249 10.08 LC Sulfur-crestedcockatoo Cacatuagalerita 72.95 1668 3.71 804 10.92 309 12.38 LC Yellow-crestedcockatoo Cacatuasulphurea 39.97 977 4.15 497 8.90 221 11.23 CR Blue-eyedcockatoo Cacatuaophthalmica 37.95 84 7.78 50 11.66 21 11.60 VU White-crestedcockatoo Cacatuaalba 32.24 967 3.49 460 9.76 228 11.15 VU Salmon-crestedcockatoo Cacatuamoluccensis 92.55 1675 4.56 896 9.51 314 11.07 VU MajorMitchell’scockatoo Cacatualeadbeateri 74.86 949 2.95 419 9.64 135 12.00 LC Slender-billedcorella Cacatuatenuirostris 43.45 333 1.93 126 11.70 52 12.09 LC Littlecorella Cacatuasanguinea 44.01 455 2.45 189 11.52 56 12.49 LC Ducorps’scorella Cacatuaducorpsii 57.81 73 3.75 36 9.58 23 9.58 LC Goffin’scorella Cacatuagoffini 30.39 581 3.90 289 10.65 131 13.46 NT Red-ventedcorella Cacatuahaematuropygia 33.59 125 5.30 67 11.76 28 12.02 CR Cockatiel Nymphicushollandicus 35.92 2850 2.53 949 7.06 241 8.98 LC Blacklory Chalcopsittaatra 17.58 140 2.78 56 7.66 15 9.64 LC Yellow-streakedlory Chalcopsittascintillata 25.01 176 2.13 60 9.48 20 9.03 LC Brownlory Chalcopsittaduivenbodei 26.54 248 1.66 69 8.90 30 10.07 LC Cardinallory Chalcopsittacardinalis 18.23 64 4.72 37 9.70 23 10.23 LC Duskylory Pseudeosfuscata 19.59 568 2.76 239 7.34 100 7.46 LC Black-wingedlory Eoscyanogenia 22.53 142 1.67 43 7.06 5 5.98 VU Violet-neckedlory Eossquamata 18.23 166 2.28 58 6.57 20 6.82 LC Blue-streakedlory Eosreticulata 27.83 353 2.16 121 7.91 33 11.41 NT Redandbluelory Eoshistrio 16.08 56 6.14 35 9.58 18 10.48 EN Redlory Eosbornea 29.48 881 2.78 380 6.92 145 7.86 LC Blue-earedlory Eossemilarvata 12.23 14 4.06 7 10.02 6 10.82 LC Ornatelorikeet Trichoglossusornatus 18.49 143 3.27 62 6.45 30 7.91 LC Rainbowlorikeet Trichoglossushaematodus 37.94 6805 2.39 2424 6.47 1325 6.70 LC Scaly-breastedlorikeet Trichoglossuschlorolepidotus 24.17 187 2.60 72 6.62 25 6.62 LC Olive-headedlorikeet Trichoglossuseuteles 18.74 167 2.59 63 7.40 23 8.15 LC Yellowandgreenlorikeet Trichoglossusflavoviridis 12.28 33 2.27 11 5.36 LC Mindanaolorikeet Trichoglossusjohnstoniae 17.77 81 1.85 28 7.27 12 8.79 NT Variedlorikeet Psitteutelesversicolor 12.47 173 1.42 48 6.64 2 8.47 LC Irislorikeet Psitteutelesiris 27.04 147 1.58 39 7.71 22 10.01 NT Goldie’slorikeet Psitteutelesgoldiei 24.13 605 1.61 161 7.01 31 8.90 LC Musklorikeet Glossopsittaconcinna 19.30 467 2.22 141 5.88 22 5.69 LC Littlelorikeet Glossopsittapusilla 20.11 153 1.41 34 5.27 6 9.75 LC Purple-crownedlorikeet Glossopsittaporphyrocephala 12.67 476 1.28 81 5.47 6 5.35 LC Blue-crownedlorikeet Viniaustralis 37.36 241 2.05 74 6.62 31 9.51 LC Kuhl’slorikeet Vinikuhlii 2.21 1 2.21 EN Bluelorikeet Viniperuviana 21.12 91 1.21 30 11.66 1 17.95 VU Collaredlorikeet Phigyssolitarius 18.23 106 3.66 50 9.22 36 9.99 LC Purple-belliedlory Loriushypoinochrous 18.13 12 10.66 11 11.09 6 11.19 LC Black-cappedlory Loriuslory 30.83 482 3.13 219 7.56 107 7.50 LC Purple-napedlory Loriusdomicella 19.23 181 2.79 77 7.16 29 9.00 VU Yellow-bibbedlory Loriuschlorocercus 13.81 134 5.27 87 8.88 47 13.81 LC Chatteringlory Loriusgarrulus 27.24 586 2.43 220 7.59 65 7.89 EN Red-frontedlorikeet Charmosynarubronotata 2.34 3 2.30 LC Red-flankedlorikeeet Charmosynaplacentis 19.59 198 1.47 56 5.91 28 6.91 LC Fairylorikeet Charmosynapulchella 20.78 71 1.43 21 6.65 3 15.58 LC Duchesslorikeet Charmosynamargarethae 4.00 4 4.00 4 4.00 NT Josephine’slorikeet Charmosynajosefinae 10.20 22 3.57 10 5.26 LC AnimalConservation]](2011)1–16 (cid:2)c 2011TheAuthors.AnimalConservation (cid:2)c 2011TheZoologicalSocietyofLondon 5 Life-historytrendsincaptiveparrots Youngetal. Table2. Continued. Lifespan:alla Lifespan:adultsZ4 Age:adultsZ4b Lifespan: IUCN Speciescommonname Scientificname maximum n Median n Median n Median statusc Papuanlorikeet Charmosynapapou 22.43 552 1.38 140 6.80 33 8.23 LC Whiskeredlorikeet Oreopsittacusarfaki 1.56 2 1.56 LC Musschenbroek’slorikeet Neopsittacusmusschenbroekii 26.54 73 2.34 26 7.23 4 16.89 LC Kea Nestornotabilis 50.53 773 2.88 339 10.49 114 10.80 VU Kaka Nestormeridionalis 35.46 191 2.13 64 12.55 17 12.25 EN Pesquet’sparrot Psittrichasfulgidus 27.63 159 4.84 87 8.29 39 9.73 VU Orange-breastedfigparrot Cyclopsittagulielmitertii 12.23 1 12.23 1 12.23 1 12.23 LC Double-eyedfigparrot Cyclopsittadiophthalma 14.35 287 1.81 83 6.54 16 6.47 LC Desmarest’sfigparrot Psittaculirostrisdesmarestii 17.46 136 1.06 25 5.29 2 13.24 LC Edwards’sfigparrot Psittaculirostrisedwardsii 20.40 122 1.66 36 7.34 8 9.81 LC Salvadori’sfigparrot Psittaculirostrissalvadorii 14.89 14 3.69 7 9.73 3 9.73 VU Guaiabero Bolbopsittacuslunulatus 1.99 3 1.86 LC Blue-rumpedparrot Psittinuscyanurus 15.23 28 2.60 9 6.85 2 11.04 NT Red-cheekedparrot Geoffroyusgeoffroyi 5.54 2 3.07 1 5.54 LC Blue-crownedracquet-tailed Prioniturusdiscurus 1.64 4 0.06 LC parrot Golden-mantledracquet-tailed Prioniturusplaturus 24.65 17 4.79 9 15.78 4 24.65 LC parrot Eclectusparrot Eclectusroratus 40.76 2521 1.92 949 9.00 416 10.08 LC Great-billedparrot Tanygnathusmegalorhynchos 14.56 24 1.97 8 6.86 1 14.56 LC Blue-napedparrot Tanygnathuslucionensis 13.19 36 2.52 10 5.90 1 13.19 NT Blue-backedparrot Tanygnathussumatranus 26.30 10 6.81 6 7.18 3 7.18 LC Alexandrineparakeet Psittaculaeupatria 29.06 562 5.06 308 6.23 181 5.23 LC Rose-ringedparakeet Psittaculakrameri 33.63 1719 3.58 797 7.69 274 9.58 LC Mauritiusparakeet Psittaculaecho 12.35 6 6.72 4 7.63 2 10.43 EN Malabarparakeet Psittaculacolumboides 14.08 15 5.18 8 7.24 LC Emerald-collaredparakeet Psittaculacalthorpae 10.59 2 10.41 2 10.41 LC Plum-headedparakeet Psittaculacyanocephala 19.86 410 4.22 209 5.62 117 5.23 LC Blossom-headedparakeet Psittacularoseata 17.15 21 6.07 13 9.07 6 10.12 LC Slaty-headedparakeet Psittaculahimalayana 18.46 19 6.82 13 7.77 11 7.77 LC Derbyanparakeet Psittaculaderbiana 28.22 408 2.24 167 9.07 62 9.81 LC Nicobarparakeet Psittaculacaniceps 6.54 14 0.46 4 5.79 NT Red-breastedparakeet Psittaculaalexandri 20.24 282 3.03 119 8.13 47 10.23 LC Long-tailedparakeet Psittaculalongicauda 13.05 55 1.68 12 8.83 7 10.23 NT Gray-headedlovebird Agaporniscanus 16.01 120 2.79 45 7.12 20 7.12 LC Red-facedlovebird Agapornispullarius 19.23 123 4.22 62 7.55 13 7.73 LC Black-wingedlovebird Agapornistaranta 15.82 164 2.38 59 7.01 2 6.16 LC Peach-facedlovebird Agapornisroseicollis 34.10 1943 2.33 663 6.74 120 8.23 LC Maskedlovebird Agapornispersonatus 24.24 997 1.46 282 5.73 106 5.56 LC Fischer’slovebird Agapornisfischeri 32.24 1402 1.75 397 5.94 203 7.80 NT Nyasalovebird Agapornislilianae 19.20 227 3.63 108 7.44 4 6.38 NT Black-cheekedlovebird Agapornisnigrigenis 13.75 675 1.71 224 6.83 152 6.88 VU Vernalhangingparrot Loriculusvernalis 13.00 50 6.93 39 8.10 11 9.62 LC Ceylonhangingparrot Loriculusberyllinus 3.56 2 2.71 LC Philippinehangingparrot Loriculusphilippensis 13.33 21 4.14 12 5.05 1 10.23 LC Blue-crownedhangingparrot Loriculusgalgulus 21.25 837 2.18 253 6.33 65 9.00 LC Maroon-rumpedhangingparrot Loriculusstigmatus 13.03 24 4.37 12 7.93 LC Greenhangingparrot Loriculusexilis 3.45 3 3.10 NT Yellow-throatedhangingparrot Loriculuspusillus 2.23 1 2.23 NT Moluccankingparrot Alisterusamboinensis 29.20 112 1.94 41 7.56 17 8.16 LC Papuankingparrot Alisteruschloropterus 22.35 77 6.06 45 10.26 10 11.66 LC Australiankingparrot Alisterusscapularis 31.32 699 1.53 171 7.63 59 7.75 LC Olive-shoulderedparrot Aprosmictusjonquillaceus 14.84 7 11.12 6 11.18 NT Red-wingedparrot Aprosmictuserythropterus 27.30 390 1.83 137 9.03 41 10.69 LC Superbparrot Polytelisswainsonii 24.21 421 2.86 166 7.18 47 6.81 VU Regentparrot Polytelisanthopeplus 27.49 365 2.51 125 7.23 36 7.21 LC 6 AnimalConservation]](2011)1–16 (cid:2)c 2011TheAuthors.AnimalConservation (cid:2)c 2011TheZoologicalSocietyofLondon Youngetal. Life-historytrendsincaptiveparrots Table2. Continued. Lifespan:alla Lifespan:adultsZ4 Age:adultsZ4b Lifespan: IUCN Speciescommonname Scientificname maximum n Median n Median n Median statusc Princessparrot Polytelisalexandrae 23.98 614 2.55 210 7.36 76 7.45 NT Red-cappedparrot Purpureicephalusspurius 17.90 138 1.06 29 8.00 4 12.91 LC Malleeringneckparrot Barnardiusbarnardi 31.62 181 1.05 52 6.75 8 4.84 NA PortLincolnparrot Barnardiuszonarius 17.96 140 3.66 68 7.81 13 8.06 LC Greenrosella Platycercuscaledonicus 7.98 37 3.37 15 6.35 4 6.61 LC Crimsonrosella Platycercuselegans 20.14 1010 1.03 139 6.50 36 7.53 LC Yellowrosella Platycercusflaveolus 13.31 59 2.50 21 6.18 1 4.23 LC Adelaiderosella Platycercusadelaidae 17.35 58 0.26 11 8.44 5 7.23 LC Easternrosella Platycercuseximius 37.44 1302 1.61 334 6.58 93 6.81 LC Pale-headedrosella Platycercusadscitus 25.03 267 1.76 75 6.35 23 7.18 LC Northernrosella Platycercusvenustus 21.57 191 2.57 69 6.81 4 7.81 LC Westernrosella Platycercusicterotis 31.64 274 1.03 64 6.58 7 5.87 LC Bluebonnet Northiellahaematogaster 15.40 173 1.44 40 6.06 2 10.42 LC Red-rumpedparrot Psephotushaematonotus 17.74 792 1.93 238 5.27 107 5.23 LC Mulgaparrot Psephotusvarius 11.79 116 1.93 25 5.61 3 4.81 LC Golden-shoulderedparrot Psephotuschrysopterygius 20.96 812 1.38 221 7.91 32 9.49 EN Swiftparrot Lathamusdiscolor 14.18 184 1.26 28 6.28 11 6.24 EN Antipodesgreenparakeet Cyanoramphusunicolor 12.66 147 2.77 60 6.61 7 5.37 VU Red-frontedparakeet Cyanoramphusnovaezelandiae 36.45 510 1.73 129 7.23 51 10.05 VU Yellow-frontedparakeet Cyanoramphusauriceps 16.48 171 1.30 51 6.54 20 6.96 NT Orange-frontedparakeet Cyanoramphusmalherbi 12.28 17 1.87 4 7.56 1 12.28 CR Hornedparakeet Eunymphicuscornutus 12.90 30 2.75 11 6.93 6 11.98 EN Maskedshiningparrot Prosopeiapersonata 17.73 4 11.46 4 11.46 NT Redshiningparrot Prosopeiatabuensis 23.67 35 5.42 21 9.89 LC Blue-wingedparrot Neophemachrysostoma 15.85 165 0.60 30 5.47 LC Elegantparrot Neophemaelegans 14.91 207 1.72 54 6.22 LC Rockparrot Neophemapetrophila 16.92 68 2.17 25 6.36 LC Orange-belliedparrot Neophemachrysogaster 13.27 426 0.81 81 6.29 47 7.23 CR Turquoiseparrot Neophemapulchella 26.54 461 2.15 142 6.65 15 7.52 LC Scarlet-chestedparrot Neophemasplendida 25.41 1284 1.05 202 5.91 32 13.05 LC Bourke’sparrot Neopsephotusbourkii 19.40 511 2.11 155 6.06 43 6.56 LC Budgerigar Melopsittacusundulatus 18.01 4840 0.97 819 5.64 324 5.20 LC Groundparrot Pezoporuswallicus 1.17 1 1.17 LC Brehm’stigerparrot Psittacellabrehmii 1.92 1 1.92 LC Vasaparrot Coracopsisvasa 29.06 190 5.20 109 9.76 49 11.57 LC Blackparrot Coracopsisnigra 37.69 132 4.89 73 8.95 22 9.90 LC Grayparrot Psittacuserithacus 48.26 4742 2.66 1979 8.23 882 8.75 NT Brown-neckedparrot Poicephalusrobustus 36.00 377 3.08 172 8.15 89 8.36 LC Jardine’sparrot Poicephalusgulielmi 20.20 227 4.30 118 6.81 44 9.20 LC Brown-headedparrot Poicephaluscryptoxanthus 16.20 169 2.27 63 6.61 30 8.58 LC Niam-niamparrot Poicephaluscrassus 10.06 2 10.06 2 10.06 2 10.06 LC Meyer’sparrot Poicephalusmeyeri 31.02 275 4.53 150 8.05 60 9.63 LC Ru¨ppell’sparrot Poicephalusrueppellii 20.54 49 5.23 35 5.23 21 5.23 LC Red-belliedparrot Poicephalusrufiventris 22.23 192 1.92 65 7.49 34 7.72 LC Senegalparrot Poicephalussenegalus 27.16 736 3.88 361 6.60 186 5.47 LC Hyacinthmacaw Anodorhynchushyacinthinus 54.26 568 12.52 422 18.23 141 21.77 EN Lear’smacaw Anodorhynchusleari 43.57 13 14.56 11 17.86 CR Spix’smacaw Cyanopsittaspixii 32.22 9 6.18 7 15.18 3 20.21 CR Blueandyellowmacaw Araararauna 48.52 2124 6.60 1297 12.55 273 20.78 LC Blue-throatedmacaw Araglaucogularis 32.79 23 12.55 17 18.20 12 18.66 CR Scarletmacaw Aramacao 48.26 1360 8.36 896 14.59 188 21.24 LC Green-wingedmacaw Arachloroptera 63.04 981 9.51 670 14.44 180 19.19 LC Militarymacaw Aramilitaris 54.43 581 8.57 385 14.16 110 20.12 VU Greatgreenmacaw Araambigua 34.75 78 10.73 56 19.88 16 24.83 EN Red-frontedmacaw Ararubrogenys 36.21 241 6.48 143 13.84 42 19.77 EN Chestnut-frontedmacaw Araseverus 39.67 135 5.73 80 10.57 13 19.80 LC AnimalConservation]](2011)1–16 (cid:2)c 2011TheAuthors.AnimalConservation (cid:2)c 2011TheZoologicalSocietyofLondon 7 Life-historytrendsincaptiveparrots Youngetal. Table2. Continued. Lifespan:alla Lifespan:adultsZ4 Age:adultsZ4b Lifespan: IUCN Speciescommonname Scientificname maximum n Median n Median n Median statusc Yellow-collaredmacaw Primoliusauricollis 25.21 153 3.03 68 9.58 9 19.60 LC Blue-headedmacaw Primoliuscouloni 13.30 2 13.30 2 13.30 2 13.30 EN Blue-wingedmacaw Primoliusmaracana 24.95 93 6.87 61 14.48 23 18.23 NT Red-belliedmacaw Orthopsittacamanilata 9.72 43 2.01 16 6.89 LC Red-shoulderedmacaw Diopsittacanobilis 22.91 157 2.51 59 11.64 15 18.98 LC Thick-billedparrot Rhynchopsittapachyrhyncha 35.24 359 6.21 202 15.60 40 20.74 EN Goldenconure Guarubaguarouba 60.90 373 4.59 190 14.10 34 21.68 EN Blue-crownedconure Aratingaacuticaudata 22.49 99 2.89 42 8.81 4 19.23 LC White-eyedconure Aratingaleucophthalmus 28.45 93 2.28 28 10.15 6 23.35 LC Greenconure Aratingaholochlora 21.06 44 0.89 8 7.96 LC Hispaniolanconure Aratingachloroptera 30.84 14 18.23 14 18.23 13 18.23 VU Cubanconure Aratingaeuops 14.71 15 1.79 6 7.63 VU Finsch’sconure Aratingafinschi 14.16 1 14.16 1 14.16 LC Red-frontedconure Aratingawagleri 24.86 35 8.32 30 8.32 2 15.58 LC Mitredconure Aratingamitrata 27.83 93 3.45 41 8.44 11 27.83 LC Red-maskedconure Aratingaerythrogenys 26.64 108 4.40 56 8.93 2 21.02 NT Golden-cappedconure Aratingaauricapillus 18.85 25 6.73 19 8.43 1 18.85 NT Jandayaconure Aratingajandaya 22.24 165 1.92 69 9.53 7 19.98 LC Sunconure Aratingasolstitialis 29.70 529 2.07 200 10.98 23 18.98 EN Dusky-headedconure Aratingaweddellii 24.57 12 5.39 8 9.27 1 24.57 LC Brown-throatedconure Aratingapertinax 19.73 31 1.42 10 8.58 1 13.73 LC Olive-throatedconure Aratinganana 7.12 5 2.09 1 7.12 LC Orange-frontedconure Aratingacanicularis 28.62 131 0.87 23 8.80 2 23.42 LC Peach-frontedconure Aratingaaurea 15.34 124 2.19 25 6.58 LC Cactusconure Aratingacactorum 9.08 15 6.26 10 6.47 LC Nandayconure Nandayusnenday 30.24 411 3.39 185 9.00 19 20.79 LC Patagonianconure Cyanoliseuspatagonus 34.12 439 7.11 294 11.19 62 18.56 LC Monkparakeet Myiopsittamonachus 24.78 455 3.76 217 6.65 5 22.24 LC Slender-billedconure Enicognathusleptorhynchus 20.17 23 3.87 11 9.28 LC Maroon-belliedconure Pyrrhurafrontalis 17.42 40 1.52 13 11.05 LC Green-cheekedconure Pyrrhuramolinae 8.34 3 8.22 3 8.22 LC Maroon-tailedconure Pyrrhuramelanura 12.05 3 1.24 1 12.05 LC Crimson-belliedconure Pyrrhuraperlata 22.34 21 7.41 15 8.44 LC Fiery-shoulderedconure Pyrrhuraegregia 12.16 2 12.13 2 12.13 LC White-earedconure Pyrrhuraleucotis 10.61 2 6.57 1 10.61 NT Paintedconure Pyrrhurapicta 17.75 77 0.57 12 11.26 LC Black-cappedconure Pyrrhurarupicola 6.09 6 0.01 2 6.09 LC Blue-throatedconure Pyrrhuracruentata 20.38 29 10.57 17 16.85 4 18.53 VU Barredparakeet Bolborhynchuslineola 6.03 3 3.73 1 6.03 LC Andeanparakeet Bolborhynchusorbygnesius 9.65 28 2.24 9 7.53 LC Mexicanparrotlet Forpuscyanopygius 12.02 35 6.37 22 8.10 LC Green-rumpedparrotlet Forpuspasserinus 11.58 22 2.42 7 4.72 LC Blue-wingedparrotlet Forpusxanthopterygius 27.90 15 3.03 7 9.16 2 27.90 LC Spectacledparrotlet Forpuscospicillatus 7.12 2 4.18 1 7.12 1 7.12 LC Pacificparrotlet Forpuscoelestis 30.38 145 1.27 28 6.07 2 24.26 LC Yellow-facedparrotlet Forpusxanthops 10.50 22 4.47 12 6.18 VU Plainparakeet Brotogeristirica 4.21 24 1.74 3 4.21 LC White-wingedparakeet Brotogerisversicolurus 17.84 89 1.88 29 6.82 LC Gray-cheekedparakeet Brotogerispyrrhopterus 13.78 20 3.48 9 8.03 EN Orange-chinnedparakeet Brotogerisjugularis 22.79 43 0.04 5 7.05 LC Tuiparakeet Brotogerissanctithomae 15.15 6 1.86 2 10.01 LC Black-cappedparrot Pionitesmelanocephala 27.07 96 3.40 45 13.21 8 20.71 LC White-belliedparrot Pionitesleucogaster 23.14 34 4.97 26 5.79 3 20.28 LC Pileatedparrot Pionopsittapileata 19.51 29 8.27 22 9.20 1 19.51 LC Caicaparrot Pionopsittacaica 28.24 1 28.24 1 28.24 1 28.24 LC Blue-headedparrot Pionusmenstruus 23.03 79 3.07 37 7.36 1 18.90 LC 8 AnimalConservation]](2011)1–16 (cid:2)c 2011TheAuthors.AnimalConservation (cid:2)c 2011TheZoologicalSocietyofLondon Youngetal. Life-historytrendsincaptiveparrots Table2. Continued. Lifespan:alla Lifespan:adultsZ4 Age:adultsZ4b Lifespan: IUCN Speciescommonname Scientificname maximum n Median n Median n Median statusc Red-billedparrot Pionussordidus 5.70 3 2.83 1 5.70 LC Scaly-headedparrot Pionusmaximiliani 23.86 31 8.47 21 10.25 2 16.63 LC Plum-crownedparrot Pionustumultuosus 13.76 8 4.37 4 11.29 LC White-cappedparrot Pionusseniloides 7.60 1 7.60 1 7.60 LC White-crownedparrot Pionussenilis 13.45 7 12.63 4 13.02 LC Bronze-wingedparrot Pionuschalcopterus 18.98 36 2.15 13 15.23 5 18.23 LC Duskyparrot Pionusfuscus 9.10 16 1.50 7 7.26 LC Yellow-billedamazon Amazonacollaria 11.61 7 7.91 6 8.10 VU Cubanamazon Amazonaleucocephala 30.83 292 4.09 165 7.77 24 21.24 NT Hispaniolanamazon Amazonaventralis 29.06 117 3.61 53 6.30 1 14.15 VU Black-billedamazon Amazonaagilis 8.00 2 8.00 2 8.00 VU PuertoRicanamazon Amazonavittata 27.23 63 1.50 28 9.03 CR Tucumanamazon Amazonatucumana 26.19 109 5.08 66 5.41 10 18.96 NT Red-spectacledamazon Amazonapretrei 24.23 18 1.26 5 23.54 4 23.69 VU White-frontedamazon Amazonaalbifrons 35.24 133 3.76 64 8.76 9 20.05 LC Yellow-loredamazon Amazonaxantholora 22.05 11 12.33 10 12.33 1 22.05 LC Green-cheekedamazon Amazonaviridigenalis 39.45 311 5.24 180 11.59 33 20.68 EN Lilac-crownedamazon Amazonafinschi 30.73 133 4.47 74 11.13 15 25.29 VU Red-loredamazon Amazonaautumnalis 37.84 192 7.28 127 11.75 26 18.44 LC Festiveamazon Amazonafestiva 30.31 35 9.66 28 18.11 11 21.10 LC Red-tailedamazon Amazonabrasiliensis 23.20 16 18.89 15 21.93 8 22.34 VU Red-crownedamazon Amazonarhodocorytha 26.94 39 14.75 32 15.37 11 24.25 EN Blue-cheekedamazon Amazonadufresniana 22.42 15 8.43 15 8.43 6 19.48 NT Yellow-shoulderedamazon Amazonabarbadensis 34.62 46 8.77 38 10.45 8 9.46 VU Yellow-facedamazon Amazonaxanthops 24.73 28 6.92 23 11.90 4 24.73 NT Blue-frontedamazon Amazonaaestiva 37.44 646 5.37 395 10.22 73 19.32 LC Yellow-crownedamazon Amazonaochrocephala 34.45 401 5.18 240 10.46 50 17.75 LC Yellow-napedamazon Amazonaauropalliata 66.81 185 7.91 124 11.45 38 19.48 LC Yellow-headedamazon Amazonaoratrix 41.50 620 3.37 285 10.48 54 20.78 EN Orange-wingedamazon Amazonaamazonica 39.02 289 5.43 174 8.44 30 18.15 LC Scaly-napedamazon Amazonamercenaria 6.57 2 4.52 1 6.57 LC Mealyamazon Amazonafarinosa 42.90 100 6.11 62 10.40 11 16.93 LC Vinaceousamazon Amazonavinacea 26.94 43 4.28 22 12.15 6 21.65 VU StVincentamazon Amazonaguildingii 36.58 32 17.30 29 19.87 3 34.70 VU StLuciaamazon Amazonaversicolor 38.75 27 13.57 17 19.92 7 32.04 VU Red-neckedamazon Amazonaarausiaca 29.65 3 29.61 2 29.63 VU Hawk-headedparrot Deroptyusaccipitrinus 38.25 163 6.50 101 13.57 15 21.30 LC Purple-belliedparrot Triclariamalachitacea 15.14 12 5.80 9 7.99 NT Carolinaparakeet Conuropsiscarolinensis 15.55 4 10.02 3 15.03 EX aDoesnotincludechicksthatdieddayofhatch. bIndividualsthatwerestillaliveasof24March2008. c2009RedListstatus. LC,LeastConcern;NT,NearThreatened;VU,Vulnerable;EN,Endangered;CE,CriticallyEndangered;EX,Extinct;NA,notavailable. breeding was 1.10years for the orange-bellied parrot Neo- Aone-wayANOVAtestingfordifferencesinthemeans phemachrysogaster.Thehighestmedianageoflastbreeding ofreproductiondataamongthesixselectedcladesindicated was19.75yearsfortheStVincentamazonAmazonaguildin- that they differed in the median age of first breeding gii. The blue-eyed cockatoo Cacatua ophthalmica had the (F =5.39, P=0.0015), median age of last breeding 5,27 longestmedianbreedingdurationat5.92years.Thelongest (F5,49=17.77,Po0.0001),mediandurationofactiverepro- median post-breeding duration was recorded at 5.16years duction (F =4.18, P=0.0031) and median duration of 5,49 for Pesquet’s parrot Psittrichas fulgidus (supporting infor- post-reproduction (F =5.66, P=0.0004). Notably, the 5,45 mationTableS2). mean median duration of post-reproduction was longer AnimalConservation]](2011)1–16 (cid:2)c 2011TheAuthors.AnimalConservation (cid:2)c 2011TheZoologicalSocietyofLondon 9 Life-historytrendsincaptiveparrots Youngetal. than the mean median duration of active reproduction for were Near Threatened (NT), 11% were Vulnerable (VU), Trichoglossus,Cacatua,AmazonaandPlatycercus(Fig.5). 7%wereEndangered(EN)and3%wereCriticallyEndan- gered (CR; Table 2). One-way ANOVAs of lifespan and breedingparametersbyIUCNstatusrevealedthattherewas Life-historyandIUCNstatus a detectable difference in adult median lifespan Afterclassifyingspeciesusingthe2009IUCNRedList,we (F4,163=9.00, Po0.0001), median adult age (F4,93=6.44, P=0.0001), median age of last breeding (F =3.55, found 68% of species were of Least Concern (LC), 10% 4,125 P=0.0088) and median duration of active breeding (F =4.65,P=0.0016)amongtheIUCNstatusgroups. 2.0 4,125 The species with VU, EN or CR (the classifications of highest threat) had greater average values for maximum 1.8 lifespan,medianadultlifespan,medianageoflastbreeding an] 1.6 and median duration of active breeding than did species sp classifiedasLCorNT. e m lif 1.4 u Discussion m 1.2 xi ma 1.0 Parrotshaveareputationforbeingoneofthelongest-lived g [ aviantaxa(Prinzinger,1993).Thisanalysisof260speciesof o L 0.8 captive parrots spanning the order Psittaciformes demon- stratesthatevencloselyrelatedcladesofparrotscandiffer 0.6 dramatically in lifespan and duration of reproduction. While a few individual parrots have lived for nearly a 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 century, the majority of parrots in captivity did not live Log [mean mass (g)] much beyond two decades. Even when accounting for Figure1Theregressionoflogofmaximumlifespanonlogofadult juvenilemortality,only30%ofthe260specieshadmedian massbyparrotspecieswithnZ20individuals.Theslopeofthefitline adultlifespansZ10years.Clearly,mostcaptiveparrotsare is0.3215(cid:3)0.0213. notlivingaslongasgenerallythought.However,wefound (a) Female (b) Female (c) Female 60 140 140 120 120 mber of species 23450000 mber of species 146800000 ber of species 146800000 u u m N 10 N 20 Nu 20 0 0 0 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 Maximum lifespan Median adult lifespan Median adult age (d) Male (e) Male (f) Male 140 140 60 120 120 mber of species 23450000 mber of species 146800000 mber of species 146800000 Nu 10 Nu 20 Nu 20 0 0 0 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 Maximum lifespan Median adult lifespan Median adult age Figure2HistogramsoflifespanbyparrotspecieswithnZ20individualsoffemale(a)maximumand(b)medianadultlifespanand(c)medianadult age,andofmale(d)maximumand(e)medianadultlifespanand(f)medianadultage. 10 AnimalConservation]](2011)1–16 (cid:2)c 2011TheAuthors.AnimalConservation (cid:2)c 2011TheZoologicalSocietyofLondon