LeonardJ.Brillson SurfacesandInterfacesof ElectronicMaterials Related Titles Butt,H.-J.,Kappl,M. Bordo,V.G.,Rubahn,H.-G. Surface andInterfacialForces OpticsandSpectroscopy at Surfacesand Interfaces 436pageswith158figures and17tables 281pageswith144figuresand1tables 2010 2005 Softcover Softcover ISBN:978-3-527-40849-8 ISBN:978-3-527-40560-2 Gerlach,G.,Dotzel,W. Irene,E.A. IntroductiontoMicrosystem ElectronicMaterialsScience Technology 320pages AGuideforStudents 2005 376pages Hardcover 2008 ISBN:978-0-471-69597-4 Hardcover ISBN:978-0-470-05861-9 Burshtein,A.I. Introductionto Wetzig,K.,Schneider,C.M.(eds.) ThermodynamicsandKinetic MetalBasedThin Filmsfor TheoryofMatter Electronics 349pageswith142figures 424pageswith312figuresand17tables 2005 2006 Softcover Hardcover ISBN:978-3-527-40598-5 ISBN:978-3-527-40650-0 Butt,H.-J.,Graf,K.,Kappl,M. PhysicsandChemistryof Interfaces 398pageswith183figures 2006 Softcover ISBN:978-3-527-40629-6 Leonard J. Brillson Surfaces and Interfaces of Electronic Materials TheAuthor AllbookspublishedbyWiley-VCHare carefullyproduced.Nevertheless,authors, Prof.LeonardJ.Brillson editors,andpublisherdonotwarrantthe OhioStateUniversity informationcontainedinthesebooks, Electrical&ComputerEngineering includingthisbook,tobefreeoferrors. andPhysics Readersareadvisedtokeepinmindthat Columbus,USA statements,data,illustrations,procedural [email protected] detailsorotheritemsmayinadvertentlybe inaccurate. LibraryofCongressCardNo.:appliedfor BritishLibraryCataloguing-in-Publication Data Acataloguerecordforthisbookisavailable fromtheBritishLibrary. Bibliographicinformationpublishedby theDeutscheNationalbibliothek TheDeutscheNationalbibliotheklists thispublicationintheDeutscheNa- tionalbibliografie;detailedbibliographic dataareavailableontheInternetat <http://dnb.d-nb.de>. ©2010WILEY-VCHVerlagGmbH&Co.KGaA, Weinheim Allrightsreserved(includingthoseof translationintootherlanguages).Nopart ofthisbookmaybereproducedinany form–byphotoprinting,microfilm,orany othermeans–nortransmittedortranslated intoamachinelanguagewithoutwritten permissionfromthepublishers.Registered names,trademarks,etc.usedinthisbook, evenwhennotspecificallymarkedassuch, arenottobeconsideredunprotectedbylaw. Cover Spiezsdesign,Neu-Ulm Typesetting LaserwordsPrivateLimited, Chennai,India PrintingandBinding StraussGmbH, Mo¨rlenbach PrintedintheFederalRepublicofGermany Printedonacid-freepaper ISBN:978-3-527-40915-0 V Contents Preface XVII 1 Introduction 1 1.1 SurfaceandInterfacesinEverydayLife 1 1.2 SurfacesandInterfacesinElectronicsTechnology 2 Problems 7 References 8 2 HistoricalBackground 9 2.1 ContactElectrificationandtheDevelopmentofSolid-State Concepts 9 2.2 High-PuritySemiconductorCrystals 10 2.3 DevelopmentoftheTransistor 10 2.4 TheSurfaceScienceEra 12 2.5 AdvancesinCrystalGrowthTechniques 13 2.6 FutureElectronics 15 Problems 15 References 16 3 ElectricalMeasurements 19 3.1 SchottkyBarrierOverview 19 3.2 IdealSchottkyBarriers 20 3.3 RealSchottkyBarriers 22 3.4 SchottkyBarrierHeightMeasurements 25 3.4.1 Current–Voltage(J–V)Technique 25 3.4.2 Capacitance–Voltage(C–V)Technique 28 3.4.3 InternalPhotoemissionSpectroscopy(IPS) 29 3.5 Summary 33 Problems 33 References 34 SurfacesandInterfacesofElectronicMaterials.LeonardJ.Brillson Copyright©2010WILEY-VCHVerlagGmbH&Co.KGaA,Weinheim ISBN:978-3-527-40915-0 VI Contents 4 InterfaceStates 37 4.1 InterfaceStateModels 37 4.2 SimpleModelCalculationofElectronicSurfaceStates 39 4.3 IntrinsicSurfaceStates 42 4.3.1 ExperimentalApproaches 42 4.3.2 TheoreticalApproaches 43 4.3.3 IntrinsicSurface-StateModels 44 4.3.4 IntrinsicSurfaceStatesofSilicon 45 4.3.5 IntrinsicSurfaceStatesofCompoundSemiconductors 45 4.3.6 DependenceonSurfaceReconstruction 48 4.3.7 IntrinsicSurface-StateSummary 52 4.4 ExtrinsicSurfaceStates 52 4.4.1 WeaklyInteractingMetal–SemiconductorInterfaces 52 4.4.2 ExtrinsicFeatures 55 4.4.3 SchottkyBarrierFormationandThermodynamics 55 4.4.4 ExtrinsicSurface-StateSummary 62 4.5 ChapterSummary 62 Problems 63 References 63 5 UltrahighVacuumTechnology 67 5.1 UltrahighVacuumVessels 67 5.1.1 UltrahighVacuumPressures 67 5.1.2 StainlessSteelUHVChambers 69 5.2 Pumps 70 5.3 SpecimenManipulators 76 5.4 Gauges 76 5.5 DepositionSources 77 5.5.1 MetallizationSources 77 5.5.2 CrystalGrowthSources 78 5.6 DepositionMonitors 79 5.7 Summary 80 Problems 81 References 81 FurtherReading 82 6 SurfaceandInterfaceAnalysis 83 6.1 SurfaceandInterfaceTechniques 83 6.2 ExcitedElectronSpectroscopies 85 6.3 PrinciplesofSurfaceSensitivity 88 6.4 SurfaceAnalyticandProcessingChambers 89 6.5 Summary 92 References 92 FurtherReading 92 Contents VII 7 PhotoemissionSpectroscopy 93 7.1 ThePhotoelectricEffect 93 7.2 TheOpticalExcitationProcess 95 7.3 PhotoionizationCrossSection 95 7.4 DensityofStates 96 7.5 ExperimentalSpectrum 96 7.6 ExperimentalEnergyDistributionCurves 97 7.7 MeasuredPhotoionizationCrossSections 100 7.8 PrinciplesofX-rayPhotoelectronSpectroscopy 112 7.8.1 ChemicalSpeciesIdentification 112 7.8.2 ChemicalShiftsinBinding 114 7.8.3 DistinctionbetweenNear-andSubsurfaceSpecies 114 7.8.4 ChargingandBandBending 115 7.9 ExcitationSources 119 7.10 ElectronEnergyAnalyzers 122 7.11 Summary 125 Problems 125 References 126 8 PhotoemissionwithSoftX-rays 129 8.1 SoftX-raySpectroscopyTechniques 129 8.2 SynchrotronRadiationSources 129 8.3 SoftX-RayPhotoemissionSpectroscopy 132 8.3.1 BasicSurfaceandInterfaceTechniques 132 8.3.2 AdvancedSurfaceandInterfaceTechniques 137 8.3.2.1 AngularResolvedPhotoemissionSpectroscopy 138 8.3.2.2 Polarization-DependentPhotoemissionSpectroscopy 139 8.3.2.3 ConstantFinalStateSpectroscopy 140 8.3.2.4 ConstantInitialStateSpectroscopy 141 8.4 RelatedSoftX-rayTechniques 141 8.5 Summary 143 Problems 144 References 144 9 Particle–SolidScattering 147 9.1 Overview 147 9.2 ScatteringCrossSection 147 9.2.1 ImpactParameter 147 9.2.2 Electron–ElectronCollisions 149 9.2.3 ElectronImpactCrossSection 150 9.3 ElectronBeamSpectroscopies 151 9.4 AugerElectronSpectroscopy 153 9.4.1 AugerTransitionProbability 153 9.4.2 AugerversusX-rayYields 154 9.4.3 AugerExcitationProcess 156 VIII Contents 9.4.4 AugerElectronEnergies 158 9.4.5 QuantitativeElementalIdentification 160 9.5 AugerDepthProfiling 163 9.5 Summary 165 Problems 167 References 168 10 ElectronEnergyLossSpectroscopy 169 10.1 Overview 169 10.2 DielectricResponseTheory 171 10.3 SurfacePhononScattering 172 10.4 BulkandSurfacePlasmonScattering 174 10.5 InterfaceElectronicTransitions 177 10.6 Atomic-ScaleElectronEnergyLossSpectroscopy 180 10.7 Summary 181 References 182 11 RutherfordBackscatteringSpectrometry 183 11.1 Overview 183 11.2 TheoryofRutherfordBackscattering 184 11.3 DepthProfiling 187 11.4 ChannelingandBlocking 190 11.5 InterfaceStudies 192 11.6 Summary 195 Problems 195 References 195 12 SecondaryIonMassSpectrometry 197 12.1 Overview 197 12.2 Principles 197 12.3 SIMSEquipment 199 12.4 SecondaryIonYields 203 12.5 Imaging 206 12.6 DynamicSIMS 207 12.7 OrganicandBiologicalSpecies 211 12.8 Summary 211 Problems 212 References 212 13 ElectronDiffraction 213 13.1 Overview 213 13.2 PrinciplesofLow-EnergyElectronDiffraction 213 13.3 LEEDEquipment 215 13.4 LEEDKinematics 216 13.5 SurfaceReconstruction 217 Contents IX 13.6 SurfaceLatticesandSuperstructures 219 13.7 SiliconReconstructions 221 13.8 III–VCompoundSemiconductorReconstructions 223 13.9 ReflectionHigh-EnergyElectronDiffraction 227 13.8.1 RHEEDOscillations 232 13.9 Summary 233 Problems 234 References 234 14 ScanningTunnelingMicroscopy 237 14.1 Overview 237 14.2 TunnelingTheory 239 14.3 SurfaceStructure 244 14.4 AtomicForceMicroscopy 246 14.5 BallisticElectronEmissionMicroscopy 249 14.6 AtomicPositioning 252 14.7 Summary 253 Problems 254 References 254 15 OpticalSpectroscopies 257 15.1 Overview 257 15.2 OpticalAbsorption 257 15.3 ModulationTechniques 260 15.4 MultipleSurfaceInteractionTechniques 262 15.5 SpectroscopicEllipsometry 263 15.6 Surface-EnhancedRamanSpectroscopy 264 15.7 SurfacePhotoconductivity 267 15.8 SurfacePhotovoltageSpectroscopy 268 15.8.1 TheoryofSurfacePhotovoltageSpectroscopy 268 15.8.2 SurfacePhotovoltageSpectroscopyEquipment 270 15.8.3 SurfacePhotovoltageSpectraandPhotovoltageTransients 271 15.8.4 SurfacePhotovoltageSpectroscopyofMetal-InducedSurface States 274 15.9 Summary 276 Problems 277 References 277 FurtherReading 278 16 CathodoluminescenceSpectroscopy 279 16.1 Overview 279 16.2 Theory 281 16.2.1 ScatteringCrossSection 281 16.2.2 StoppingPower 282 16.2.3 PlasmonEnergyLoss 283 X Contents 16.2.4 ElectronScatteringLength 285 16.2.5 SemiconductorIonizationEnergies 286 16.2.6 UniversalRange-EnergyRelation 288 16.3 MonteCarloSimulations 291 16.4 Depth-ResolvedCathodoluminescenceSpectroscopy 293 16.4.1 SurfaceElectronicStates 295 16.4.2 InterfaceElectronicStates 295 16.4.3 LocalizedCLSinThreeDimensions 297 16.4.3.1 Wafer-ScaleAnalysisof2-DEGLayers 298 16.4.3.2 SchottkyBarriers 300 16.4.3.3 ElectronicDevices 301 16.5 Summary 302 Problems 303 References 304 FurtherReading 304 17 ElectronicMaterials’Surfaces 305 17.1 Overview 305 17.2 GeometricStructure 305 17.2.1 SurfaceRelaxationandReconstruction 305 17.2.2 ExtendedGeometricStructures 306 17.2.2.1 Domains 306 17.2.2.2 Steps 306 17.2.2.3 Defects 310 17.3 ChemicalStructure 311 17.3.1 CrystalGrowth 311 17.3.1.1 BulkCrystalGrowth 311 17.3.1.2 EpitaxialLayerCrystalGrowth 314 17.3.2 KineticsofGrowth,Diffusion,andEvaporation 317 17.4 Etching 318 17.4.1 EtchProcesses 318 17.4.2 WetChemicalEtching 318 17.4.3 OrientationEffectsonWetChemicalEtching 319 17.4.4 Impurities,Doping,andLight 321 17.5 ElectronicImplications 323 17.6 Summary 323 Problems 324 References 324 AdditionalReading 326 18 AdsorbatesonElectronicMaterials’Surfaces 327 18.1 Overview 327 18.2 GeometricStructure 327 18.2.1 SiteSpecificity 328 18.2.2 MetalAdsorbatesonSi 329