Current Research in Systematic Musicology Albrecht Schneider Editor Studies in Musical Acoustics and Psychoacoustics Current Research in Systematic Musicology Volume 4 Series editors Rolf Bader, Musikwissenschaftliches Institut, Universität Hamburg, Hamburg, Germany Marc Leman, University of Ghent, Ghent, Belgium Rolf-Inge Godoy, Blindern, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/11684 Albrecht Schneider Editor Studies in Musical Acoustics and Psychoacoustics 123 Editor Albrecht Schneider Institut für Systematische Musikwissenschaft UniversitätHamburg Hamburg Germany ISSN 2196-6966 ISSN 2196-6974 (electronic) CurrentResearch in Systematic Musicology ISBN978-3-319-47291-1 ISBN978-3-319-47292-8 (eBook) DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-47292-8 LibraryofCongressControlNumber:2016953316 ©SpringerInternationalPublishingAG2017 Thisworkissubjecttocopyright.AllrightsarereservedbythePublisher,whetherthewholeorpart of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission orinformationstorageandretrieval,electronicadaptation,computersoftware,orbysimilarordissimilar methodologynowknownorhereafterdeveloped. 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Printedonacid-freepaper ThisSpringerimprintispublishedbySpringerNature TheregisteredcompanyisSpringerInternationalPublishingAG Theregisteredcompanyaddressis:Gewerbestrasse11,6330Cham,Switzerland Contents Japanese Flutes and Their Musical Acoustic Peculiarities... ..... .... 1 Shigeru Yoshikawa Acoustics of the Qin .... .... ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .... 49 Chris Waltham, Kimi Coaldrake, Evert Koster and Yang Lan Tone Production of the Wurlitzer and Rhodes E-Pianos.... ..... .... 75 Florian Pfeifle and Malte Münster Feedback of Different Room Geometries on the Sound Generation and Sound Radiation of an Organ Pipe.... .... ..... .... 109 Jost Leonhardt Fischer Acoustical Modeling of Mutes for Brass Instruments... .... ..... .... 143 Shigeru Yoshikawa and Yu Nobara Experimental Approaches to the Study of Damping in Musical Instruments.. .... ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .... 187 Malte Kob Comparison of Vocal and Violin Vibrato with Relationship to the Source/Filter Model ... ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .... 201 James W. Beauchamp Vowel Quality in Violin Sounds—A Timbre Analysis of Italian Masterpieces .. .... .... .... ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .... 223 Robert Mores Sound, Pitches and Tuning of a Historic Carillon . .... .... ..... .... 247 Albrecht Schneider and Marc Leman Source Width in Music Production. Methods in Stereo, Ambisonics, and Wave Field Synthesis .. .... .... .... .... ..... .... 299 Tim Ziemer v vi Contents Methods in Neuromusicology: Principles, Trends, Examples and the Pros and Cons.. .... ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .... 341 Christiane Neuhaus An Intelligent Music System to Perform Different “Shapes of Jazz—To Come”. .... .... ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .... 375 Jonas Braasch, Selmer Bringsjord, Nikhil Deshpande, Pauline Oliveros and Doug Van Nort Explorations in Keyboard Temperaments. Some Empirical Observations .. .... .... .... ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .... 405 Albrecht Schneider and Andreas Beurmann Introduction In the volume at hand, topics in musical acoustics and perception of sound are treated from a range of perspectives and with various methods. In general, the scientific field of musical acoustics is structured into several areas, some of which are close to physics, while others relate to music and musicology as well as to disciplines engaged in the study of sensation and perception. Musical instruments and the voice (of both humans and other species) are studied in regard to sound production and radiation of sound from a source into the environment. Sound productionmechanismsoftenaccountalsoforpitchstructuresandtimbralqualities available from individual instruments or from ‘families’ of instruments. Room acoustics is needed to understand the radiation processes including reflection and refraction of sound waves at boundaries as well as dissipation of sound energy within specific geometries. Musical sound is produced, by musicians as well as singers, with the aim of communicating with a (real or virtual) listener. Of course, the player of an instrument or a singer acts himself or herself as a listener and makes use of his or heranalyticallisteningcapabilitytocontrol,firstofall,theparts(muscles,tendons, etc.)ofhisorherbodyinvolved,aseffectors,intheproductionofsound.Playingan instrument or singing thus is based on feedback loops which control sound pro- duction, pitches and intonation as well as timbre and dynamic parameters in a musical performance. Ideally,music asperformedinaliveevent likeaconcert addressesanaudience of appreciative subjects, meaning subjects capable of perceiving music as textures of sound from which the structure of a composition or improvisation may be gathered. Musical appreciation, however, can be viewed as the terminal point of a process that starts with sensation of sounds at the ears as the relevant peripheral senseorgans(thereareindicationsthatalsothevestibularsystemmaybeexcitedby very loud sounds). Taking the peripheral auditory system as a first stage of ‘information pickup’ and signal analysis, further analysis of sound in regard to salient features and pattern recognition is conducted along the auditory pathway and, finally, in cortical areas of the brain. Though there seems to be a hierarchy from initial sensation (which must be fast to allow for real-time processing vii viii Introduction of complex sounds as well as efferent feedback activation within the auditory system) to perception directed to salient features and pattern recognition, followed by an evaluation of sensory input in cortical networks that might yield ‘auditory objects’, it is in fact the structure of the sound signal and the anatomical and physiologicalorganizationoftheinnerearandtheauditorypathwaythatdetermine perception of pitch, timbre and loudness. In this respect, a bottom-up approach to soundandmusicperceptionbasedonmusicalacousticsandpsychoacousticsseems necessary notwithstanding the obvious role of musical training and sociocultural factors which can shape perception and cognition of music in individuals. Fromwhathasbeensketchedintheprecedingparagraph,onemayviewmusical acoustics as centred on musical instruments in regard to mechanisms of sound productionandradiation,butalsoincludingpropertiesgoverningpitch,timbreand dynamicstructuresthatinturnarerelevantforsensationandperceptionofmusical sound. Furthermore, studying actual playing and singing techniques can give insight into functional aspects of sound production and musical expression. However, musical acoustics includes also the formation of tone systems as well as scales, tunings and intonation patterns. Furthermore, while physical acoustics (traditionally a part of mechanics) may be conceived as a fundamental science treating the theory of vibration and sound with little regard to actual sensation and perception, musical acoustics relates to sensation and perception as well as to the production of sound in mammalian or other species in many ways. It is from such an integrative perspective that perceptual aspects and results from experiments involving musicians and/or listeners will be considered within the broader area of musical acoustics. Severalarticlesinthisvolumedealwiththeacousticsandorganologyofpeculiar instrumentsaswellaswithcertaintypesofinstruments.ShigeruYoshikawaoffersa comprehensive study on Japanese flutes with a focus on their construction and acoustic properties as well as on playing techniques (such as cross-fingerings needed to produce a variety of pitches) as a factor that conditions intonation and timbral qualities. His article includes the classical and the modern shakuhachi, the nohkan (a transverse bamboo flute) and the shinobue (another transverse bamboo flute). Starting from the structural properties of each instrument (such as the shape of the embouchure and the bore), Yoshikawa has calculated admittance and reso- nanceconditionsinrelationtofingerings.Also,hediscussesthedataobtainedfrom anumberofexperimentsincludingmeasurementsaswellassoundanalyses.Taken together, the empirical evidence shows that the Japanese flute types studied in this articledifferfromEuropeanflutesinseveralrespects,amongthemconstructionand materials, but most significantly sound properties which feature wind noise from blowing as an essential component of the sound. As Yoshikawa concludes, Japanese flutes are constructed for producing distinct timbral qualities with an emphasis on spectral energy in higher-frequency bands. The study of the Chinese Qin carried out by Chris Waltham, Kimi Coaldrake, EvertKosterandYangLanprovidesfreshinformationfromcurrentresearchonthe acousticsofaninstrumentthathasalonghistoryandishighlyregardedinChinese music tradition. The Qin is one of several plucked zither types of East Asia which Introduction ix are of interest in regard to their construction, materials and sound properties. The acoustics of the Qin (of which little was known so far) is investigated, by Waltham and coworkers, by vibroacoustical measurement as well as a FEM modelling approach. The article offers empirical data in regard to materials, vibroacoustics, sound analysis and the FEM model chosen for this study. Florian Pfeifle and Malte Münster have studied sound generation in two instruments widely used in rock and pop music genres, the Wurlitzer E-piano, and the Fender-Rhodes E-piano. While the Rhodes employs an electromechanical set-up for the generation and pickup of sound, the Wurlitzer uses electrostatical effects. Pfeifle and Münster have measured the vibrational patterns of sound gen- eratingelements(tine,bar,reed)withahigh-speedcameraandhavemadeanalyses of the electrical properties of the pickup systems as well as of the actual sound produced so that the mechanical and the electronic data form the basis, as inter- mediate results, for a finite-element modelling (FEM) and finite difference calcu- lation approach to finding characteristics of sound generation in the two instruments.Thearticleshowsthatthepeculiartimbreinbothinstrumentsislargely due to the specific set-up and geometry of their respective pickup systems. JostLeonhardtFischerinvestigatesthefeedbackofdifferentroomgeometrieson the sound radiated from an organ pipe. Previous studies have demonstrated that pipes being placed on the same wind chest can influence each other because of acoustic coupling. In addition, one needs to consider sound radiation from indi- vidualpipesbeinghamperedbythepresenceofseveralorevenmanypipesintheir immediatesurroundingaswellasbystructuralpartsoftheorgan(suchasbeamsor brackets). Applying numerical simulation methodology, Fischer shows that sound waves radiated from an organ pipe undergo significant variation in regard to fre- quencies and amplitudes depending on the geometry of the reflecting surface. The effect is particularly visible if a pipe is located inside a closed swell chamber. ShigeruYoshikawaandYuNobaraaddressacousticalproblemsassociatedwith mutes as are used in playing brass instruments such as the French horn and the trumpet. In particular, they consider the stopping and straight mutes for the horn andthestraight,cupandwah-wahmutesforthetrumpet.Frommodellingthehorn and the trumpet on the basis of branching theory and from extensive numerical calculation including transmission matrix (T-matrix) representation of the horn system as well as from data obtained in their own measurements, Yoshikawa and Nobara discuss acoustical parameters such as input impedance and admittance, internal pressure distribution in the bore and transmission function. Among their explanationsoftheeffectsmuteshaveforchangesinresonancefrequencies,modes andspectral energy distribution isthat hand-stopping, intheFrench horn,causes a descent in pitch (while mutes in general sharpen pitches). Malte Kob surveys a number of factors relevant for damping in musical instruments as well as parameters and methods suited to measuring damping in a vibrating system. Among the approaches that have been taken in experiments on musical instruments,onefindsmeasurement ofthelossfactor,ofthereverberation time (T ), or of the −3dB bandwidth, respectively. In this article, results obtained 60 from the measurement of vibrational patterns of a metal tongue are presented in a