Structural Adjustment & Political Economy: Examining Incumbent Strategies to Condition Voter Support amidst Structural Adjustment in Jamaica JELANI MUNROE Submitted for Honors via The Center on Democracy, Development & The Rule of Law Advisors: Prof. Pete Klenow, Macroeconomist | Prof. Larry Diamond, Political Scientist ABSTRACT The International Monetary Fund (IMF) has frequently served as a lenderoflastresort to developing countries facing balanceofpayment crises. In my research, I explore how current IMFsupported structural adjustment impacted incumbent strategies for conditioning voter support in the 2016 Jamaican general elections. I find that the incumbent’s principal strategy involved centering the election on a referendum on their economic competence and viability. As a signal of economic competence, it highlighted its successful passing of IMF target evaluations. As a signal of viability, it used a PopulistPragmatist partnership at the helm of government leadership to convince the electorate that austerity was necessary but transient. This incumbent embrace of existing IMF structural adjustment as an election strategy was largely unprecedented in the history of Jamaican political economy. However, the incumbent narrowly lost the elections which supports a familiar pattern in the developing world: regimes associated with IMF austerity are generally unelectable. Page 1 TABLE OF CONTENTS Abstract 1 Introduction 3 Research Question 7 Framework for Evaluation 9 Case Study: Jamaica’s Extended Fund Facility of 20132017 18 Background: The Jamaican Political System 19 Background: Political Economy & Jamaica’s History with IMF 22 Jamaica’s Economic Difficulties circa 2013 26 IMFMandated Conditionality Reforms in the 2013 EFF 31 Jamaica’s State Capacity to Implement Reforms 34 Examining Incumbent Strategies to Condition Voter Support 36 Were the Incumbent Strategies and Tactics Successful? 64 Conclusion 69 Appendix I: Summary of JLP TenPoint Plan 71 Appendix II: PNP Formal Letter of Withdrawal from Debates 72 Appendix III: PNP Statement on Holness’ Integrity 74 Interview Transcripts 79 References 117 Page 2 INTRODUCTION In just over a halfcentury of sovereignty, Jamaica has set sail into the world accessing resources it deems necessary for national development and sustainability. This objective has required access to capital to fund government initiatives over the short, medium and longterm. This objective has motivated borrowing from international creditors as a means to this end. A significant party to Jamaica’s pursuit of international credit has been the International Monetary Fund (IMF). The IMF was formed in 1944 as one of the Bretton Woods institutions aimed at maintaining global cooperation in the postWorld War II era. Like its Bretton Woods cousins (for example, the United Nations), the IMF has gone on to integrate most of the world’s sovereign nations under its umbrella with membership of 188 states.1 The IMF has three main roles: surveillance over the international monetary system, lending to member countries with balance of payment problems, and technical assistance with economic policy design.2 In this research project, I am primarily concerned with the IMF’s role as a lenderoflastresort to borrower countries during periods of tremendous balanceofpayment problems. This role is quite different from aid provision; the IMF always requires repayment of any sums that it disburses, and almost always requires that interest be paid on funds lent. Crudely put, the IMF is more closely akin to a bank than a philanthropic foundation. In most credit facilities that the IMF provides, it also mandates Structural Adjustment Programs (SAPs) as a necessary condition for receiving loans in order to insure future repayment. 1 https://www.imf.org/external/country/index.htm 2 http://www.imf.org/external/about.htm Page 3 A Structural Adjustment Program (SAP) refers to a set of economic policies for developing countries that have been promoted by the World Bank & International Monetary Fund since the early 1980s via the provision of loans conditional on the adoption of such policies. Unlike development banks (including the World Bank and InterAmerican Development Bank), the IMF does not lend for specific projects; Structural Adjustment is necessarily systemic and macrofocused in its reach. For example, as part of a loan agreement, it is highly unlikely to specifically require that a country invest millions of dollars into building five new neonatal hospitals in rural parishes. On the other hand, the IMF may mandate that, within the period of the Structural Adjustment Program, the borrower country must run a five percent per annum primary fiscal surplus.3 Generally, policies mandated in Structural Adjustment Programs are based on neoliberal economic theory developed in the 20th century by scholars like Milton Friedman, who suggest that macroeconomic policy is most efficacious when it reduces barriers to private economic activity in the marketplace.4 Such policies may include, but are not limited to: market liberalization to remove trade barriers, deregulation of industries, privatization of stateowned firms and exchange rate stabilization.5 The IMF asserts that these policies support its broad mission: “global monetary cooperation, secure financial stability, facilitate international trade, promotion of high employment and sustainable economic growth, and reduced poverty6 around the world.”7 3 A primary fiscal surplus is simply defined as total government revenue less government expenditure (excluding interest payments on existing public debt stock) in a fiscal year. 4 Friedman, 1962 5 Williamson, 2008 in Brown, 2009 6 It was after considerable criticism in the 1990’s that the IMF officially included economic growth and poverty reduction as part of its mission statement. 7 http://www.imf.org/external/about.htm Page 4 The International Monetary Fund has a range of loan facilities available to member states facing actual or potential balanceofpayment problems. Some are nonconcessional loans; however, until 2010 LowIncome Countries were virtually eligible only for concessional loans. Some important policy instruments for lowincome countries include: I. The Rapid Credit Facility (RCF): A recentlyestablished funding tool that provides rapid financial support without conditionality in a single, upfront payout for lowincome countries facing urgent financing needs (typically for countries facing recent and sudden conflict, or natural disaster); II. The Standby Arrangement (SBA): Provides flexible support to lowincome countries with shortterm financing and adjustment needs caused by domestic or external shocks, or policy slippages. Receipt of loans through the SBA requires meeting conditional economic targets; III. The Extended Fund Facility (EFF): Provides sustained engagement and conditionality over the medium to long term, in case of protracted balance of payments problems. It represents the most involved credit facility that the IMF offers to borrower countries.8 The quantity of funding provided through each of these lending arrangements is a function of the extent of balanceofpayment problems, and the relative size of the borrower country’s economy. Jamaica, for example, received a total of USD 932 million through its Extended Fund Fund Facility since 2013. As a matter of incentivizing adherence to the terms of credit facilities, and to enforce adherence from borrower countries, the IMF provides loans 8 http://www.imf.org/external/np/exr/facts/poor.htm Page 5 almost always in tranches, after conditionalities have been met. This ensures that the IMF sees evidence, according to quarterly targets and assessment tests which it conducts based on internal economic metrics, that steps are being taken by the borrower country to meet its conditional requirements in order to ensure that funds can (and will) be repaid in the future. The IMF has significant leverage when it is tapped as a lender of last resort (almost often true when countries enter an Extended Fund Facility), since the counterfactual of IMF lending is likely a credit crisis that could bring about tremendous social unrest when public sector workers go unpaid; an inability to honor publicprivate contracts; or complete and sudden halt of public provision of social safety net services. Page 6 RESEARCH QUESTION This research is premised on a philosophy that macrolevel economic development exists in the aggregate of microeconomic successes. Microlevel economic successes make citizenry ‘feel’ good macropolicy ‘on the ground’, are often the nodes for community development, and have enormous implications for political stability. For example, a policy decision to borrow 100 million USD from international creditors to increase labor productivity by 3% is macroeconomic, since it involves the sum total of the economy and the major actor is the government via public policy. Yet, this policy objective will likely require funding grassroots programs that affect individual citizens perhaps by improving their literacy, numeracy or providing opportunities for vocational experience. It might also include creating ecosystems for Micro, Small, and Medium Enterprises (MSMEs) to increase outputs. In both these instances, the success of macropolicy for productivity growth depends on the decisions of individuals or small firms seeking to privately maximize their gains from deciding whether to participate and/or complete such a grassroots program, and what that actor uses that experience to do afterwards. To the extent that my reasonable assumption that the success of the IMF program as a macropolicy tool depends on its microlevel impact on citizens’ lives, citizens are a major adjudicator of the success of an IMFsupported program. Within a functional electoral democracy, individual voters exercise power in sending signals as to their support or lack thereof for the outcomes of structural adjustment. Broadly, my research investigates how policies enforced by multilaterals international organizations representing collective efforts of multiple member states hinders or enhances Page 7 political outcomes for developing countries like Jamaica. I seek to more deeply understand multilateral bureaucracy: what it does effectively and where it might improve. Is there a fundamental incompatibility between liberal democracy and Structural Adjustment due to the latter’s political economy constraints? Specifically, my research investigates the following question: “How did the Extended Fund Facility (EFF) initiated in Jamaica in 2013 impact incumbent strategies for conditioning voter support in the 2016 general elections? Page 8 FRAMEWORK FOR EVALUATION Figure 1: Framework for Case Study Evaluation Political outcome variable: General Election Results I use the micro political economy decision of the vote to capture political impact of the Structural Adjustment Programs. Indeed, there are various political outcomes that could be considered that are not captured by voting per se. However, in a functioning electoral democracy like Jamaica’s where regime change has happened only through general elections, and has occurred relatively frequently, capturing the vote constitutes the main pathway through which recognized political power is derived. Accordingly, I premise my research on the individual vote constituting the chief motivator for political parties hoping to form the government. I assume that political parties, behaving rationally, choose to maximize their political power by winning Page 9
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