STATE OF REPRESSION S TAT E O F R E P R E S S I O N Iraq under Saddam Hussein LISA BLAYDES PRINCETON UNIVERSITY PRESS PrincetonandOxford Copyright(cid:1)c 2018byPrincetonUniversityPress Requestsforpermissiontoreproducematerialfromthisworkshouldbesentto Permissions,PrincetonUniversityPress PublishedbyPrincetonUniversityPress, 41WilliamStreet,Princeton,NewJersey08540 IntheUnitedKingdom:PrincetonUniversityPress, 6OxfordStreet,Woodstock,OxfordshireOX201TR press.princeton.edu Jacketimage:Baghdad,Iraq,2002 PhotographybyEricBouvet.CourtesyofGettyImages. AllRightsReserved LibraryofCongressControlNumber:2018936379 ISBN978-0-691-18027-4 BritishLibraryCataloging-in-PublicationDataisavailable ThisbookhasbeencomposedinGaramondPremierProandScalaSans ∞ Printedonacid-freepaper. TypesetbyNovaTechsetPvtLtd,Bangalore,India PrintedintheUnitedStatesofAmerica 1 3 5 7 9 10 8 6 4 2 FOR JOSH CONTENTS ListofFiguresandTables ix Preface xiii Acknowledgments xvii 1 Introduction 1 PART I THEORETICAL AND EMPIRICAL FOUNDATIONS 2 ComplianceandResistanceunderAutocracy 31 3 State-andNation-BuildinginIraq,1973–1979 61 4 WarBurdenandCoalitionalPolitics,1980–1991 80 5 PoliticalImplicationsofEconomicEmbargo,1991–2003 112 PART II POLITICAL BEHAVIOR IN IRAQ, 1979–2003 6 CollaborationandResistanceinIraqiKurdistan 133 7 PoliticalOrientationandBa(cid:1)thPartyParticipation 163 8 RumorsasResistance 196 9 Religion,Identity,andContentiousPolitics 237 10 MilitaryService,Militias,andCoupAttempts 266 11 Conclusion 305 Bibliography 331 Index 351 FIGURES AND TABLES Figure1.1. Ethno-religiouspopulationdistributionacrossIraqand Baghdad 22 Figure4.1. Percentageoffamilieswithafatherorbrotherkilledineither theIran-IraqWarortheGulfWarbasedon2001–2002academicyear SchoolRegisters 100 Figure4.2. Scatterplotofrelationshipbetweendistrict-levelwardeathsand daystoprotestduring1991Uprisings 110 Figure7.1. Percentageofstudentswithan“independent”political orientationforacademicyears1987–1988,1991–1992,1995–1996,and 2001–2002 177 Figure7.2. PercentageofBaghdadstudentswithan“independent”political orientationforacademicyear2001–2002 179 Figure7.3. Percentageofstudentswith“friendofthepresident” designation,2001–2002;percentagewith“friendofthepresident” designationaftercontrollingforwardeathinthefamily,2001–2002 187 Figure7.4. PercentageofBaghdadstudentswith“friendofthepresident” designation,2001–2002;percentagewith“friendofthepresident” designationaftercontrollingforwardeathinthefamily,2001–2002 189 Figure8.1. Rumorsbyregion,1996through2002 213 Figure10.1. Percentageofhighschoolstudentswhovolunteeredfor Saddam’sFedayeen,2001–2002 288 Table2.1. Conceptualschemeforrelationshipbetweendistributionregime andformofcompliance 43