Some properties of deformed q-numbers Thierry C. Petit Lob˜ao Instituto de Matem´atica, Universidade Federal da Bahia Campus Universit´ario de Ondina, 40170-110 Salvador–BA, Brazil∗ Pedro G. S. Cardoso and Suani T. R. Pinho Instituto de F´ısica, Universidade Federal da Bahia Campus Universit´ario de Ondina, 40210-340 Salvador–BA, Brazil Ernesto P. Borges Escola Polit´ecnica, Universidade Federal da Bahia 9 Rua Prof. Aristides Novis 2, 40210-630 Salvador–BA, Brazil 0 0 Nonextensivestatistical mechanics has been a source of investigation in mathematical structures 2 such as deformed algebraic structures. In this work, we present some consequences of q-operations on the construction of q-numbers for all numerical sets. Based on such a construction, we present n a new product that distributes over the q-sum. Finally, we present different patterns of q-Pascal’s a triangles, based on q-sum, whose elements are q-numbers. J Keywords: Nonextensivestatistical mechanics, deformed numbers,deformed algebraic structures 8 2 ] h p I. INTRODUCTION - h The q-operations [1, 2] that emerges from nonextensive statistical mechanics [3] seems to provide a natural back- t a ground for its mathematical formulation. The definitions of q-sum and q-product, on the realm of real numbers, m [ x⊕qy :=x+y+(1−q)xy, (1) 1 v 1 1 x⊗qy := x1−q+y1−q−1 +1−q , x>0, y >0, (2) 0 (cid:2) (cid:3) 5 where[p] =max{p,0},allowsomeexpressionsofnonextensivestatisticalmechanicsbewrittenwiththesameformal + 4 simplicity of the extensive (q =1) formalism. For instance, the q-logarithm[4] of a product, and the q-exponentialof . 1 a sum are written as 0 9 ln xy =ln x⊕ ln y, q q q q 0 : v ex+y =ex⊗ ey, i q q q q X r with a x1−q−1 ln x:= , x>0 (3) q 1−q and 1 ex :=[1+(1−q)x]1−q. (4) q + Theq-sumandthe q-productareassociative,commutative,presentneutralelement(0forq-sumand1forq-product) and opposite and inverse elements under restrictions. A reasonable question is whether those operations provide a structureofcommutativeringorevenfield. Sincetheq-productdoesnotdistributeovertheq-sum,theydonotdefine those algebraic structures. ∗Electronicaddress: [email protected] 2 There are instances of other structures that are distributive, though do not present other properties. For instance, the tropical algebra [5] — for which the T-sum of two extended real numbers (R∪{−∞}) is the minimum between them and the T-product is the usual sum — does not have reciprocal elements in relation to the T-sum. Ontheotherhand,therelevantstructureofanear-ring[6]isanexampleofanon-distributivering;however,inthis case, distributivity is required in at least one side. It is known long ago, as pointed out by Green [7], that practical examples of (both sides) of non-distributive algebraic structures are not so easy to find out. So the q-algebraic structure is a good example of both-side non-distributive structure. Recently, we have generalizedthe q-algebraicstructure into a biparametrized(q,q′)-algebraicstructure (and, more generally, into a n parameter algebraic structure) [8], in such a way that the two-parameter operators (q,q′)-sum, (q,q′)-product, and their inverses, present the same properties of the monoparameterized q-algebraic structure. A remarkable feature of these algebraic structures is that the distributivity property does not hold. Though this “non-property” is very interesting, there are some proposals in the literature [1, 9] (that will be shown later) which change somehow the q-algebraic structure in order to recover distributivity . In all of those proposals [1, 2, 9], the operations are deformed but the numbers are not deformed. In this work, we deform the numbers to obtain the q-numbers x for all numerical sets based on q-sum in such way that q x ⊕ y =(x+y) . (5) q q q q Since the q-product is, in a sense that we will discuss later, intrinsically non-distributive, in order to obtain the distributive structure in a very natural way, we keep the q-sum and propose a new product such that x ♦ y =(xy) . (6) q q q q Wealsosetupthea-numbersandk-numbersbasedonotherdeformedsumspresentedin[1,9]. Wecalltheattention to the interestingconnection betweenthe q-naturalnumber and the Heine number [10]. Other mathematical objects, whose elements are q-numbers, may be generated by deformed operations; we exemplify some q-Pascal’s triangles, derived by q-sum, that correspondto different patterns. The paper is organizedas follows: Sec. II introduces the q-numerical sets; Sec. III proposes a different product ♦ ; q othermathematicalobjectsasq-Pascal’strianglesareaddressedinSec.IV. Finally,inSec.Vwedrawourconcluding remarks. II. THE q-NUMERICAL SETS The main idea is to use the classical construction of the numerical sets [11] for which elements are the respective deformed numbers. We use the notation N , Z , Q , R for q-natural, q-integer, q-rational and q-real numerical sets q q q q respectively. Consideraninductionoveranarbitrarygeneratorg (thatweassumedifferentfrom0and−1/(1−q)toavoidtrivial structures) q-summed n times: g g⊕ g = 2g+(1−q)g2 q g⊕ g⊕ g = 3g+3(1−q)g2+(1−q)2g3 (7) q q . . . [1+(1−q)g]n−1] g⊕ ···⊕ g = . q q 1−q ntimes | {z } For simplicity of the expressions in this note, we shall choose g = 1, and obtain the deformed q-natural number summed n times: n = 1⊕ +···+⊕ 1 q q q ntimes |(2−q)n{z−1 } = 1−q n n = (1−q)k−1, (8) (cid:18)k (cid:19) Xk=1 3 n where stands for the binomial coefficients. The q-neutral element is the same as the usual one, 0 = 0 (cid:18)k (cid:19) q (n ⊕ 0 =n ), and also 1 =1. Of course n →n as q →1. q q q q q q The dependence ofthe parameterq providesaplethoraofinterestingdifferentstructures. Forinstance,withq =2, we have a structure given by {1}; with q = 3, we have a structure isomorphic to the finite field with two elements {0,1}. However, if q < 2, we have infinite structures whose elements are all real numbers (if complex numbers are allowed, there is more freedom on the parameter q). It is not difficult to verify that the set N = {n ,n ∈ N} with the map σ :N → N ,n 7→ n ⊕1 is a model for q q q q q q q the Peano axioms. Let us show, for example, some elements of the set N for q =0: q N ={0,1,3,7,15,31,63,127,255,511,1023,...}. 0 Fromthesetofthedeformedq-naturalnumber,wemayconstruct,asintheclassicalway,bymeansthe(difference) equivalence relation on N ×N , the set of deformed q-integer numbers Z . We also draw some elements of this set q q q for q =0: 127 63 31 15 7 3 1 Z ={...,− ,− ,− ,− ,− ,− ,− , 0 128 64 32 16 8 4 2 0,1,3,7,15,31,63,127,255,511,1023,...}. It is interesting to note that, in any case, the q-integer are strictly greater than −1/(1−q). The q-integer numbers were also studied by R. Cardo and A. Corvolan [12] based on the ⊙ operation introduced q in [2]: n =n⊙1, which is defined in the same way as the notion we introduced in (7) by induction. q Analogously, we have also constructed, as in the classical case, the deformed q-rational numbers Q , by an (ratio) q equivalence relation on Z ×Z∗, and the q-real numbers, R , by Cauchy sequences. It would also be possible to q q q construct the q-real numbers using the Dedekind cuts. We have proved that, following the classical construction of the q-real number, they are given by (2−q)x−1 x = . (9) q 1−q The asymptotical behavior of x (x→∞) is given by: q ∞, q <1 lim x = x, q =1 (10) q x→∞  1 , 1<q ≤2. q−1  For q >2, x may assume complex values. q 4 q=0 3 q=1 x q 2 q=1.5 q=2 q=1.9 1 0 0 1 2 3 4 x FIG. 1: q-Real number xq versusx for some typicalvalues of q. It is amazing to note that in the study of the q-analogues of the hypergeometric series [13], at the second half of nineteenth century, Heine introduced the deformed number [10] Hn−1 [n] = , (11) H H −1 4 known as the q-analogue of n. The number deformation plays a fundamental role in combinatorics, but also have applications in the study of fractals, hyperbolic geometry, chaotic dynamical systems, quantum groups, etc. There are also many physical applications, for instance, in exact models in statistical mechanics. It is interesting that the deformed q-number (9) is exactly the Heine number, by the simple change of variables q = 2−H. The connection between nonextensive statistical mechanics and the Heine number (and quantum groups) was already pointed out in [14]. It is worth to note that the coincidence of the symbol q in all these different contexts (q-series, q-analogues, quantum groups, and q-entropy) occurs just by chance. It is possible to define other generalized numbers, based on the algebraic structures proposed on [1, 9]. In [1], two operations a-sum (+a and + ) and a-product (×a and × ) were introduced. The a-sums are, respectively, a a x+ y :=x⊕ y with q =1−a, (12) a q xa ya 1/a x+ay := aln exp +exp . (13) (cid:26) (cid:20) (cid:18) a (cid:19) (cid:18) a (cid:19)(cid:21)(cid:27) The a-products are, respectively, x× y :=x⊗ y with q =1−a, (14) a q exp[ln(1+ax)ln(1+ay)/a]−1 x×ay := . (15) a Based on (13), we obtain the deformed x(a) number with generator g: x(a) =[a lnx+ga]1/a. (16) In [9], two operations k-sum (⊞k and ⊞ ) and k-product (⊠k and ⊠ ) were proposed. The k-sums are, respectively, k k x⊞ y :=x⊗ y with q =1−k, (17) k q [(1+kx)1/k+(1+ky)1/k]k−1 x⊞ky := . (18) k The k-products, are, respectively x⊠ y :=x⊕ y with q =1−k, (19) k q=k−1 (xy)k−xk−yk+(k+1) 1/k x⊠ky := . (20) (cid:20) k (cid:21) Basedon(17)and(18),thedeformednumberswithgeneratorg,x[k] andx ,associatedto⊞k and⊞ ,respectively, [k] k are: xk(1+kg)−1 x[k] = , (21) k x =[xgk−(x−1)]1/k. (22) [k] III. DISTRIBUTIVE PROPERTY The q-product is non-distributive, i.e., x⊗ (y+z)6=(x⊗ y)+(x⊗ z),∀x6=0,1,∀q∈R−{1}. (23) q q q As an essential result for our work, we observe that, assuming a set with more than one element and keeping reasonable properties such as the additive neutral element and cancellation to sum, then there is no deformed sum that is distributed by the q-product. In fact: 5 Let t be the neutral element of such a sum. If we impose the distributive property: x⊗ (y⊕t)=(x⊗ y)⊕(x⊗ t) q q q x⊗ y =(x⊗ y)⊕(x⊗ t) q q q Thus t=x⊗ t, using (2), we obtain q x1−q =1, i.e.,xhastobeoneofthecomplexroots11/(1−q);so,restrictedtorealnumbers,xhastobe1. Sincexisanyelement, the set has just one element. Therefore the non-distributivity is an intrinsic property of the q-product. Some authors [1, 9] tried to obtain distributive structures based on q-operations. For instance, note that, although the operation × is distributive over a +a,shownin(13), +a doesnothaveneutralelement,as itwasconsistentwith the aboveresult. Moreover×a, shown in (15), is distributive over + . a Concerningthe k-sumsandthe k-products,⊠ is distributive over⊞k, shownin(18), as wellas⊠k, shownin(20), k is distributive over ⊞k. Note that the distributivity results from the curious exchange of roles of the operations: the k-sum ⊞ is indeed a q-product, and the k-product ⊠ is a q-sum. k k Since there is no deformed sum that is distributed by the q-product, we propose a new product, signed ♦ , that q emerges naturally from the classical construction of the numerical set, just mentioned. This new product is different from equations (15) and (20), and distributes over the q-sum. It is defined as {ln[(1+(1−q)x]ln[1+(1−q)y]} (2−q) [ln(2−q)]2 −1 x♦ y := . (24) q 1−q Moreover the q-sum and the q-product obey, respectively, (5) and (6). For the q-sum, we have: (2−q)x+(2−q)y −2 x ⊕ y = (25) q q q 1−q [(2−q)x−1][(2−q)y−1] + 1−q (2−q)x+y −1 = =(x+y) . (26) q 1−q For the q-product, we have {ln[(2−q)x]ln[(2−q)y]} (2−q) [ln(2−q)2] −1 x ♦ y = q q q 1−q (2−q)xy −1 = =(xy) . (27) q 1−q It is obvious that, when q →1, x ♦ y =(xy) =xy. 1 1 1 1 Using (25) and (27), it is easy to provethat the ♦ product distributes overthe q-sum when applied to q-numbers, q i.e.: x ♦ (y ⊕ z )=[x ♦ y ]+[x ♦ y ]. (28) q q q q q q q q q q q In other words, x ♦ (y ⊕ z ) = x ♦ (y+z) q q q q q q q q = [x(y+z)] =[xy+xz] q q = (xy) ⊕ (xz) q q q = (x ♦ y )⊕ (x ♦ z ). (29) q q q q q q q 6 IV. q-PASCAL’S TRIANGLES The deformationsofoperations andnumbers openquestions about other mathematicalobjects derivedfrom them. An interesting class of those objects are the Pascal’striangles. Recently, some works connect nonextensive statistical mechanics with Leibnitz [15] and Pascal’s triangles derived from the q-product [16]. In order to exhibit some simple applications of such deformations, in this section we construct q-Pascal’s triangles using q-sum as the deformed operation. In this way, their elements are q-numbers. Different patterns are illustrated for different values of q. For example, we present q-Pascal’s triangles for q =0, q =1.5, q =2 and q =3: a) Increasing pattern For q =0, we obtain: 1 1 1 1 3 1 1 7 7 1 1 15 63 15 1 1 31 1023 1023 31 1 1 63 32767 1048575 32767 63 1 Notethatthisincreasingpatternoccursforanyvalueofq ≤1. Forq =1,werecovertheusualPascal’striangle. It is compatible with the divergent curve shown in figure 1 for natural values of x. b) Asymptotical pattern For q =1.5, we obtain: 1 1 1 1 1.5 1 1 1.75 1.75 1 1 1.875 1.968 1.875 1 1 1.937 1.998 1.998 1.937 1 1 1.968 1.999 1.999 1.999 1.968 1 1 1.984 1.999 2 2 1.999 1.984 1 1 1.992 2 2 2 2 2 1.992 1 7 c) Fixed pattern For q =2, we obtain: 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 For any value of 1<q <2, the elements are positive greaterthan 1. In the limit case q =2, it convergesto the fixed pattern shown above. In general, if 1 < q < 3, lim n = 1/(q−1); for q = 1.5, lim n = 2; for n→∞ q n→∞ 1.5 q =2, n =1 for any value of n. 2 d) Self-similar pattern For q =3, we obtain: 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 For any value of 2 < q < 3, the elements are positive numbers smaller than 1. In the limit case q = 3, the 3-Pascal’striangle presents a self-similar pattern due to the isomorphism between Z and Z mod 2 shown in q=3 last section. V. CONCLUSIONS AND PERSPECTIVES In this work, we explore the properties of the algebraic structure derived from the q-sum which implies a new product, in a natural way, that recovers the distributive property. It is done by constructing the q-numerical sets basedonq-sum. Weshowthat,assumingsomeproperties,theq-productdoesnotdistributeoveranysum. Therefore, using the q-numbers, we define a new deformed product, called ♦ that distributes over the q-sum. Finally, different q patterns of Pascalq-triangles, whose elements are q-numbers, are shown. Our results illustrate the diversity of mathematical structures that may be derived from the deformation of opera- tions and numbers. It is interesting that the nonextensive statistical mechanics called the attention to deformations that were studied in the context of Mathematics as well as some known mathematical objects as Heine number and Pascal’s triangles. This work is a motivation of investigating more deeply the connections between nonextensive statistical mechanics and mathematical structures. 8 Acknowledgments ThisworkispartiallysupportedbyCNPq–ConselhoNacionaldeDesenvolvimentoCient´ıficoeTecnol´ogico(Brazil- ian Agency). We acknowledge Ricardo Alcaˆntara, Luciano Dias and Wagner Telles for fruitful discussions. [1] L. Nivanen,A.Le M´ehaut´e and Q. A.Wang; Rep.Math. 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