SOME CONFUSING MATTERS RELATING TO ARBITRATION UNDER THE UNITED STATES ARBITRATION ACT WESLEY A. STURGES* AND IRVING OLS MURPHYt This is a review of the judicial administration of the United States Arbitration Act.1 It is restricted chiefly to matters relating to the qualification of arbitration *Dean and Edward J. Phelps Professor of Law, Yale Law School. Chairman, Board of Directors, American Arbitration Association. Author, COMMERCIAL ARBITRATIONS AND AwARDs (1930). "[Third year student, Yale Law School, and Student Assistant in Instruction, Yale Law School. 'The legislation was first enacted in 1925. 43 STAT. 883 (1925), 9 U. S. C. §§1-S (946). It was approved February 12, 1925. Section 15 provided that the Act should take effect "on and after the ist day of January next after its enactment, [namely, January s, 1926] but shall not apply to con- tracts made prior to the taking effect of this Act." This restriction of the application of the Act re arbitration agreements made prior to the foregoing effective date of the Act, was recognized and applied in Ex parte di Simone, 36 F.2d 773 (ad Cir. I929) on appeal from The Volsinio, 32 F.ad, 357 (E. D. N. Y. x929) in which the restriction appears to have passed unnoticed. Section 14 of the Act provided: "That this Act may be referred to as 'The United States Arbitration Act.'" Legislative reports upon the Act while it was pending in the Congress as a bill are as follows: HousE COMMITrEE ON JUDICIARY REPORT (CoMmIsIrEE REPORT 96), 68th Cong., ist Sess., accompanying H. R. 646, United States Arbitration Act of February 12, 1923, referred to in this Article as H. R. No. 96 and Senate Report No. 536, 68th Cong., 1st Ses., referred to in this Article as SEN. Rrt. No. 536. The statute was carried into THE ConE OF T E LAws OF THE UNITED STrEs OF AMERICA, ,14 STAT. x67, Title 9, entitled "Arbitration" (1926). In the Preface to this Code of the Laws of the United States it is stated that: "This Code is the official restatement in convenient form of the generll and permanent laws of the United States in force December 7, 2925, now scattered in 25 volumes- i.e., the Revised Statutes of 1878, and volumes 2o to 43, inclusive, of the Statutes at Large. No new law is enacted and no law repealed. It is prima facie the law. It is presumed to be the law. The presumption is rebuttable by production of prior unrepealed Acts of Congress at variance with the Code" (44 STAT. v). Subsequently the statute was included in the United States Code, 1940 edition, as Title 9, entitled "Arbitration." In 1947 this legislation was repealed, with the proviso, however, that "any rights or lisnbilities now existing under such repealed sections or parts thereof shall not be affected by such repeal." The original Act and Title 9 of the U. S. C., 1940 Edition, were reenacted except that former Section 14, supra, naming the Act, was omitted and former Section i5 was renumbered as Section 14 and amended to read: "This title shall not apply to contracts made prior to January 2, 1926." 61 STAT. 669 (1947), 9 U. S. C. §X4 (Supp. 1952). The original Act was entitled "An Act to make valid and enforceable written provisions or agreements for arbitration of disputes arising out of contracts, maritime transactions, or commerce among the States or Territories or with foreign nations." 43 STAT. 883 (i925). The 1947 Act was entitled "An Act to codify and enact into positive law, title 9 of the United States Code, entitled 'Arbitration.' " Then followed the enacting clause as follows: "Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America in Congress assembled, That Title 9 of the United States Code, entitled 'Arbitration,' is codified and enacted into positive law and may be cited as '9 U. S. C., § ,' as follows." This Act incorporated catch lines preceding each section in the body of the Act which were the same as those in THE CODE OF TIlE LAws OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERCA, 44 STAT. x267, Title 9, and in 9 U. S. C., 2940 Edition. In the 1947 Act they were not included in the section as in 294o and the prior Code of the Laws of the United States; they were placed above the section. Above "§i" is the catch line: " 'Maritime Transactions' and 'Commerce' Defined; Exceptions to Operation of Title"; above "§2": "Validity, Irrevocability, and Enforcement of ARBITRATION UNDER THE UNITED STATES ARBITRATION AcT agreements under the Act and to the remedies provided in the Act to render such agreements irrevocable and enforceable. Accordingly, consideration of judicial de- terminations upon the first five sections of the Act constitutes the major part of this article. The review is intended to point up a variety of issues many of which are important to those who may be concerned with arbitration of either commercial or labor controversies under the Act. Some of these questions derive in part from frailties in drafting the Act and in part from views advanced by some of the courts in resolving those frailties in the course of litigation. Some accrue more directly from the case law made by the courts without much reference to limitations or un- certainties of statutory text. In some instances contradictory determinations of the same issue have been made by two or more courts of appeals. In some instances decisions by the district courts would escape these contradictory determinations on grounds not considered by the court of appeals. Doubtless some day the Supreme Court will resolve some of these diversities. In the meantime, it must be reckoned that the law of the Act may be different in one or more respects in one circuit from what it is in another. It may be noted, in passing, that these diversities and contradictions are not readily correlated with any declared attitude of the judges toward the Act or toward arbitration or arbitration agreements generally. Common law tradition has taught judges and lawyers alike to look askance upon arbitration agreements prior to award rendered.2 Some judges who have commented upon the matter have urged a "new Agreements to Arbitrate"; above "§3": "Stay of Proceedings Where Issue Therein Referable to Arbitra- tion"; above "§4": "Failure to Arbitrate Under Agreement; Petition to United States Court Having Jurisdiction for Order to Compel Arbitration; Notice and Service Thereof; Hearing and Determination"; above "§5": "Appointment of Arbitrators or Umpire." Other catch lines appear above the remaining sections. This Act was approved July 30, 1947. 61 STAT. 669 (1947), 9 U. S. C. §§1-14 (Supp. 195). Except in the foregoing matters the texts of the original and subsequent enactments appear to be substantially the same. The foregoing detail might have seemed inconsequential, except that the Court of Appeals for the Third Circuit has recently concluded that the foregoing addition of the catch line above §I, was sufficient cause to reverse certain of its views taken in earlier cases. See Amalgamated Association of Street Etc. Employees v. Pennsylvania Greyhound Lines, 192 F.2d 310 (195i) discussed infra, p. 614. General references to the codification also appear in Uniao De Transportadores Para Importacao E Comercjo, Ltda. v. Companhia De Navegacao Carregadores Acorcanos, 84 F. Supp. 58z (E. D. N. Y. 1949), and in International Union United Furniture Workers v. Colonial Hardwood Flooring Co., 168 F.2d 33 (4th Cir. 1948). In this article the legislation is generally referred to as the United States Arbitration Act, or the Act, and, except as otherwise indicated, all references to, and quotations from, the Act are to and from the 1947 Act. 2 Common law revocability and non-enforceability have been ruled into such agreements in almost all American jurisdictions where the issues have been adjudicated (in several jurisdictions the issues have never been determined). Common law revocability rests on two particulars: (1) revocability of the agreement and of the authority of all persons under it by due notice given by a-party thereto before award rendered thereunder; and (2) revocability by action, whereby a party can sue in court in dis- regard of the arbitration agreement and the party-defendant cannot effectively plead the agreement for a stay pending arbitration, nor in abatement or in bar of the action. These two specifications of common law revocability are frequently referred to in this article as "revocability by notice" and "revocability by action," respectively. Common law non-enforceability refers to the denial of any remedy seeking specific performance of LAW AND CONTEMPORARY PROBLEMS orientation," and that the Act should not be given "a grudging type of construction carried down from the days of judicial hostility to all arbitration agreements." Others have voiced traditional warnings against arbitration. The impact of the particular view is sometimes rather clearly recognized in the decision; in other cases it is not. In 1942, Judge Frank, in an opinion for the Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit,3 after an extended review of Anglo-American rationale for common law revocability and non-enforceability of arbitration agreements, assigned the substance of its being to "judicial hostility to arbitration,"' and urged a "new orientation" in causes coming under the Act. He said :' In the light of the clear intention of Congress, it is our obligation to shake off the old the arbitration agreement such as a general decree against the recalcitrant party to perform, or court appointment of part or the whole of an arbitral board with power to act when the recalcitrant party refuses to cooperate in that particular. This common law non-enforceability rests more in judicial lore than in positive decisions. The decisions ruling common law revocability have been thought, however, to indicate a high degree of probability of correlative decisions of non-enforceability were the relief to be sought. Common law revocability and non-enforceability have been read into both classes of arbitration agreements in general usage, namely, (s) provisions for arbitration of controversies which may arise between the parties in the future, and (2) agreements of submission of existing controversies. In a few states common law revocability (by action, at least) of arbitration provisions in contracts is more or less precisely codified by local statute. Idaho, Missouri, Montana, North Dakota, Oklahoma, and South Dakota have such statutory provisions. A similar piece of legislation in Pennsylvania was held an unconstitutional impairment of freedom of contract. Adinolfi v. Hazlett, 242 Pa. 25, 88 At. 869 (1913). See STURGES, CMMXERCiAL ARBITRATIONS AND AwARDS, §15 (1930). The tradition of common law revocability and non-enforceability of arbitration agreements stands in sharp contrast from the common law conclusiveness and finality which are accorded awards and from the tradition of the courts both in equity and at law (and of the arbitration statutes) to narrow the instances or causes for which an award, once rendered, will be vacated or denied enforcement. See SToRGES, Op. Cit. SUpra, §235. Kulukundis Shipping Co. v. Amtorg Trading Corp., 126 F.2d 978 (2d Cir. 1942). "Id. at 985. Some courts have thought it more appropriate to refer common law revocability (by action, at least) to the quite common constitutional provision that: ". . .all courts are open, and every person, for an injury done him in his land, goods, person, or reputation, shall have remedy by due course of law." Baltimore & Ohio R. Co. v. Stankard, 56 Ohio St. 224, 231-232, 46 N. E. 577, 579 (1897). See also, Cocalis v. Nazlides, 308 Ill. 152, 139 N. E. 95 (1923)- And if common law revocability (by action) of provisions to arbitrate future disputes were dis- regarded some of the worst consequences that might result have been judicially presented as follows: "But a party cannot bind himself by contract in advance to renounce his right to appeal to the courts for the redress of wrongs. If this could be done an association might be formed in the state which would renounce our constitution and laws, and set up a different system of government for themselves, and in case of wrongs and oppression they would be debarred from resorting to our courts, and would be compelled to submit to the decisions of their own tribunals, and would most likely become dissatisfied and disorderly, resulting in riot and bloodshed." Myers v. Jenkins, Admr., 63 Ohio St. sox, 120, 57 N. E. 1o89, 1093 (900) (italics supplied). 5 126 F.2d at 985. Absent applicable arbitration statutes, rare have been the instances of judicial "shake off" of traditional common law revocability or non-enforceability of arbitration agreements. It did happen, however, with respect to an arbitration provision in a written collective bargaining agreement in Bell v. Western Ry. of Alabama, 228 Ala. 328, 153 So. 434 (1934). The precise issue was revocability by action; it was denied. Consult also, with respect to an arbitration provision in a written construction contract, Park Construction Co. v. Independent School District, 2o9 Minn. x8, 296 N. W. 475 (x941) with its citation in Knutson v. Lasher, 219 Minn. 594, 18 N. W. 2d 688 (1945), That common law revocability by action of arbitration provisions in written contracts was ruled out by the supreme courts of Colorado and Washington in their first decisions upon the issue, and that such revocability was denied in Pennsylvania with respect to such arbitration provisions which "named" the arbitrator, see STUaES, op. cit. stpra note 2,§ 15. ARBITRATION UNDER THE UNITED STATES ARBITRATION AcT judicial hostility to arbitration. Accordingly, in a case like this, involving the federal Act, we should not follow English or other decisions which have narrowly construed the terms of arbitration agreements or arbitration statutes. Later on in his opinion, however, Judge Frank saw fit on behalf of the court to caution, if not to chide, the "more enthusiastic" sponsors of arbitration against regarding it "as a universal panacea." "We doubt," he emphasized, "whether it will cure corns or bring general beatitude. Few panaceas work as well as ad- vertised."' In 1938, Judge A. N. Hand, in the same court, in a proceeding in admiralty and involving the Act, had served a judicial warning of rather traditional tenor to parties relating to arbitration as follows:7 Arbitration sometimes involves perils that even surpass the "perils of the seas." Cf. Marchant v. Mead-Morrison Mfg. Co., 252 N. Y. 284, 169 N. E. 386. Whether in any particular instance it is a desirable risk is not for us to say. It is a mode of procedure fostered by statute and in the present case invoked under the agreement of the parties. If they consent to submit their rights to a tribunal with extensive powers and subject to a most restricted review, they cannot expect the courts to relieve them from the effect of their deliberate choice. In the third circuit in 1943, in determining that Section 3 should be construed broadly and not restricted to arbitration provisions in "maritime transactions" or contracts involving "commerce" as covered in Sections I and 2 of the Act, Judge Goodrich declared the approach of this Court of Appeals to the Act as follows: "The generality of the language used in the statute [Section 3] does not suggest any self-imposed limitation. Nor do we think that the 'congressional approval of arbi- tration'8 should be so limited by implication, by a grudging type of construction carried down from the days of judicial hostility to all arbitration agreements." Again, ...... we think the Act is entitled to a construction which will accomplish its purpose, and should not be hedged about with imagined limitations, as has been done in some instances"; and "we should not choke the arbitration process which has been given congressional approval by the fetters of earlier judicial conceptions."' I GENERAL PATrERN oF Act The Act purports to embrace (i) a written provision "in any maritime trans- a 126 F.ad at 987 n. 32. 'in re Canadian Gulf Lines Limited, 98 F.zd 711, 714 (2d Cir. 1938). See also: Judge Garrecht in American Guaranty Co. v. Caldwell, 72 F.ad 209 (9th Cir. 1934); Judge Hutcheson in American Sugar Refining Company v. The Anaconda, 138 F.ad 765 (5th Cir. 1943). ' This quotation is from Justice Brandeis' opinion in Shanferoke Coal & Supply Corp. v. Westchester Service Corp., 293 U. S. 449, 453 (1935). " Donahue v. Susquehanna Collieries Co., 138 F.2d 3, 5, 6, 7 (3d Cir. 1943). See also: District Judge McGranery, in United Office & Professional Workers of America, C.I.O. v. Monumental Life- Ins. Co., 88 F. Supp. 602 (E. D. Pa. 195o); District Judge Weinfeld, in Lewittes & Sons v. United Furniture Workers, 95 F. Supp. 851 (S. D. N. Y. 1951); Circuit Judge Evans, in Dela- ware & Hudson R. Corp. v. Williams 129 F.ad is (7th Cir. 1942); District judge Mandelbaum, in The Aakre, 21 F. Supp. 540 (S. D. N. Y. 1937). 584 LAW AND CONTEMPORARY PROBLEMS action" or in a "contract evidencing a transaction involving commerce" (subject to the exclusion of certain contracts of employment to be considered below) "to settle by arbitration a controversy thereafter arising out of such contract or transaction or the refusal to perform the whole or any part thereof," and (2) an agreement in writing to submit to arbitration an existing controversy "arising out of such a con- tract, transaction, or refusal." This is provided by Section 2. Section 2 of the Act with its catch line reads as follows: VALIDITY, IRREVOCABILITY, AND ENFORCEMENT OF AGREEMENTS TO ARBITRATE A written provision in any maritime transaction or a contract evidencing a trans- §2. action involving commerce to settle by arbitration a controversy thereafter arising out of such contract or transaction, or the refusal to perform the whole or any part thereof, or an agreement in writing to submit to arbitration an existing controversy arising out of such a contract, transaction, or refusal, shall be valid, irrevocable, and enforceable, save upon such grounds as exist at law or in equity for the revocation of any contract. Subsequent sections of the Act provide precise remedies to effectuate the foregoing declaration of Section 2 that arbitration agreements qualifying thereunder "shall be valid, irrevocable and enforceable." These remedies include motion proceedings to stay the trial of any action, suit or proceeding brought in any court of the United States upon a cause embraced in such arbitration agreement (§3), to order a recalci- trant party to proceed in compliance with the arbitration agreement (§4), and to procure court appointment of arbitrators to act under the agreement when a party fails or refuses to participate in the original appointment or in filling a vacancy of the arbitral board (§5)- Subsequent sections provide for the confirmation, vacation, and modification or correction of awards by motion proceedings (§§9, io, ii). Accordingly, the Act follows the general pattern of the general arbitration statutes of California, Connecticut, Hawaii, Louisiana, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, Ohio, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, Washington, and Wisconsin. II ScoPz oF AcT-ITs TIE-UP TO "MARITIME TRANSACTIONS" AND "COMERG-,' As indicated above, Section 2 of the Act contains the general declaration of policy and purpose of the Act, namely, that provisions for arbitration of future controversies and agreements of submission of existing controversies which qualify thereunder "shall be valid, irrevocable, and enforceable" except for cause as reserved in the saving clause of the Section, namely, "save upon such grounds as exist at law or in equity for the revocation of any contract." In order to qualify under the Act, agreements for arbitration must be either "a written provision" or an "agreement in writing" (§2). Oral agreements for arbitration are not recognized by the Act. Motion proceedings under Section 3 are precisely tailored to nullify common law revocability (by action) of arbitration agreements. They look to an order of ARBITRATION UNDER THE UNITED STATES ARBITRATION AcT 585 stay of trial of any suit or proceeding brought in any court of ,the United States upon a cause embraced in an arbitration agreement qualifying under the Act.'0 Motion proceedings under Section 4 afford summary procedure to gain a general order against a recalcitrant party to a qualifying arbitration agreement that Rie proceed with the agreement. This remedy overcomes common law non-enforce- ability of such agreements. Section 5 covers a special aspect of the enforcement of qualifying agreements by providing, as it does, motion proceedings to obtain court appointment of the original arbitral board when the recalcitrant party fails or refuses to participate in the selection thereof according to the agreement, or in filling a vacancy which may otherwise occur. It remains to consider how the Act ties up arbitration agreements otherwise qualifying thereunder with "maritime transactions" and "commerce." And why that tie-up? Section 2 of the Act is, by its terms, limited not only to arbitration agreements which are in writing, but also to (i) a written provision in "any maritime trans- action" or in "a contract evidencing a transaction involving commerce" to settle a controversy thereafter arising out of such "maritime transaction" or "contract evi- dencing a transaction involving commerce" (or arising out of the refusal to perform the whole or any part thereof), or (2) a written agreement of submission of an existing controversy arising out of "such a contract, transaction or refusal." "Maritime transactions" and "commerce" are defined in Section I of the Act." The Section, with its catch line, reads as follows: "MARITIME TRANSACTIONS" AND "COMMERCE" DEFINED; EXCEPTIONS TO OPERATION OF TITLE §x. "Maritime transactions," as herein defined, means charter parties, bills of lading of water carriers, agreements relating to wharfage, supplies furnished vessels or repairs to vessels, collisions, or any other matters in foreign commerce which, if the subject of con- troversy, would be embraced within admiralty jurisdictions; "commerce," as herein de- fined, means commerce among the several States or with foreign nations, or in any Terri- tory of the United States or in the District of Columbia, or between any such Territory and another, or between any such Territory and any State or foreign nation, or between the District of Columbia and any State or Territory or foreign nation, but nothing herein o No specific remedy is provided to overcome common law revocability by notice. None is provided in the state arbitration statutes of like pattern as the United States Act. Indeed, it is difficult to imagine what positive remedy would be practicable to overcome such revocability. Quite clearly the general declaration of irrevocability as set out in Section 2 with respect to arbitration agreements qualifying thereunder is mandatory and self-executing against the party giving the notice. Otherwise, the provisions of Sections 3, 4, and 5 might be brought to naught by a notice of revocation. For illustra- tion of how a court of the United States might be called upon to accord self-executing effect to the general declaration of Section 2 to defeat revocation by notice, consult State ex rel. Fancher v. Everett, 144 Wash. 592, 258 Pac. 486 (927). "In the original Act of 1925 the matters in this Section i of the 1947 Act were not given a section number; the x925 Act began with these matters immediately following the enacting clause; there was no Section i to that Act; and the catch line above Section i of the 1947 Act did not appear in the original Act; there were, however, similar lines on the right margin of the Section. Concerning the significance of this detail, see supra note i. LAW AND CONTEMPORARY PROBLEMIS contained shall apply to contracts of employment of seamen, railroad employees, or any other class of workers engaged in foreign or interstate commerce. It is clear that Sections 2 and i purport to determine what arbitration agreements qualify under the Act. Section i is necessary to the understanding of Section 2 in this connection. These Sections indicate that the Act is based upon written arbitration agreements concerning controversies which develop out of one or more of the designated transactions within the admiralty and maritime jurisdiction of the Congress or out of contracts evidencing transactions within the regulatory powers of the Congress over interstate and foreign commerce. Unless an arbitration agreement covers a controversy arising out of one of these transactions, apparently the Act is not intended to apply. It has been so held with respect to provisions to arbitrate future controversies.'2 If the agreement is a provision to settle by arbitra- tion a controversy thereafter arising, it must be found in a "maritime transaction" or in a contract evidencing a transaction involving "commerce" to qualify. If it is an agreement of submission of an existing controversy, it is not required to be so located. The source of the controversy is controlling in both cases. Accordingly, it is thought that the terms of the Act do not extend to arbitration agreements covering controversies arising out of other and different sources even though such controversies may be subject to the established jurisdiction of the courts of the United States either on the grounds of diversity of citizenship of the parties or as arising under a law of the United States.'3 "sT his statement is subject to the exception ruled in certain cases considered in the next topic of this article that Section 3 is not so restricted. Some of these cases, however, imply, at least, that the Act otherwise (Sections 4 and 5, in particular) is so restricted. The cases cited herewith are either contrary to the foregoing decisions on Section 3 and have not been reversed or overruled by the court of appeals of the circuit, or they did not involve Section 3. Tejas Development Co. v. McGough Bros., 165 F.2d 276 (5th Cir. 1947); In re Cold Metal Process Co., 9 F. Supp. 992 (W. D. Pa. '935) (§§4, 5); Watkins v. Hudson Coal Co., 54 F. Supp. 953 (M. D. Pa. 1944) (§4). See also, comment of Judge Learned Hand in Shanferoke Coal & Supply Corp. v. Westchester Supply Corp., 70 F.2d 297 (ad Cir. 1934), quoted infra, note 39; Conley v. San Carlo Opera Co., 163 F.2d 310 (2d Cir. 5947); In re Wisconsin Cent. Ry. Co., 74 F. Supp. 85 (D. Minn. '947). It seems clear that it is sufficient if the arbitration provision covers a controversy arising out of either a "maritime transaction" or "commerce"; that if derives from a "maritime transaction," it is not necessary that such transaction also constitute "commerce." The Aakre, 21 F. Supp. 540 (S.D . N. Y. 1937). See also The Gerald Fagan, 49 F.2d 215 (2d Cir. 193); J. V. Lane & Co., Inc. v. O'Donnell Transp. Co., 9 F. Supp. 39 (E. D. N. Y. 1934). The limitation of the Act to arbitration agreements covering controversies from the two designated sources attends not only provisions to arbitrate controversies arising in the future, but also agreements of submission of existing controversies. Section 2, after identifying future disputes provisions as those covering "a controversy thereafter arising out of such contract or transaction, or the refusal to perform the whole or any part thereof," identifies a written agreement of submission of an existing controversy as covering a controversy "arising out of such contract, transaction, or refusal." That state arbitration statutes of the same general pattern as the United States Act are not so restrictive as to the coverage of submissions of existing controversies, see SrTUaRs, op. cit. supra note 2, §140. "3If the arbitration provision covers a controversy arising out of a contract evidencing a transaction involving interstate commerce (and not from a "maritime transaction" nor from a contract evidencing a transaction involving foreign commerce or general admiralty jurisdiction) it seems clear that the juris- diction of the federal court to grant the remedy of Section 4 or 5 will depend upon diversity of citizenship of the parties as well as the source of the controversy. Judge Learned Hand has given illustration of this as follows: "A citizen of New Jersey may enforce arbitration against a citizen of New York upon ARBITRATION UNDER THE UNITED STATES ARBITRATION AcT It is not clear why the Act was so restricted. The legislative reports do not tell why.14 The Congress, finding it expedient and desirable to require the courts of the United States to repudiate common law revocability and non-enforceability of written arbitration agreements covering controversies arising out of "maritime transactions" and "commerce" should, it seems, have found it equally expedient and desirable to accomplish the same objectives with respect to like written arbitration agreements covering other and different controversies over which the courts of the United States take jurisdiction by reason of diversity of citizenship of the parties or otherwise. There has been some judicial suggestion that the Congress did not have consti- tutional power to do so. This view has been advanced in certain cases involving the Act wherein consideration was given to whether Section 3 is confined to arbitra- tion provisions in "maritime transactions" and in contracts evidencing "commerce," or may be of more general coverage (we give consideration to this particular ques- tion in the next succeeding topic of this article). It seems to have been suggested in this connection that arbitration agreements covering controversies arising from the designated sources were fully within "the federal legislative domain," whereas the conferring of "validity to arbitration agreements generally" might be outside the scope of "federal power." At the same time it was further suggested, however, that the stay of trial of suits or proceedings as provided in Section 3 could be extended to all suits or proceedings in the courts of the United States, for Congress is not limited in regulating procedures in the federal courts by any limitations upon its powers to regulate "maritime transactions" or "commerce." It should be emphasized, however, that the question of constitutional power to extend the provisions of all sections of the Act to arbitration agreements covering controversies in addition to those arising out of "maritime transactions" or "commerce" and over which the courts of the United States tqke jurisdiction only by diversity of citizenship or other- wise was not precisely in issue in these cases. But the point was put by Judge Goodrich in the third circuit as follows :"5 The first section defines maritime transactions and commerce. Then the second section proceeds to lay down a rule of substantive law regarding the validity of an agree- ment for arbitration in case of any maritime transaction or a contract evidencing a trans- action involving commerce. Congress was here making a rule concerning subject matter within its own constitutional legislative authority. It was not seeking to confer validity to arbitrationa greements generally, a matter outside the scope of federal powers. Instead, it picked out two important classes of transactions within the federal legislative domain and declared the effect of arbitration clauses in agreements concerned therewith. a contract of sale which requires him to ship the goods from Newark to Manhattan, but not upon one where they are to go from Manhattan to the Bronx. Conversely, a citizen of New York may not come to the District Court to enforce arbitration against another citizen of that state, though the goods must be shipped across a State line." Krauss Bros. Lumber Co. v. Louis Bossert & Sons, Inc., 62 F.2d oo4) oo6 (2d Cir. 1933). "See infra note x6. ",D onahue v. Susquehanna Collieries Co., 138 F.2d 3, 5 (3d Cir. 1943) (italics supplied). LAW AND CONTEMPORARY PROBLEMS Then in §3 the statute deals with the conduct of suits in federal courts; again a subject matter of congressional power. The language becomes general: "any suit or proceeding," upon "any issue referable to arbitration under an agreement in writing for such arbitra- tion" are the words. Congress is not limited, in legislatinga s to law suits in federal courts, to those suits involving matters where the substantive rights of the parties may be con- trolled by federal legislation. Judge Parker, in the fourth circuit, ruling in accord with Judge Goodrich on the precise issue before them, advanced similar views on the question at hand and had refprence, in so doing, to the legislative history of the Act. He said :10 As introduced into Congress section 2 of the act provided for the validity and enforceabil- ity of arbitration agreements "in any contract or maritime transaction or transaction involv- " Agostini Bros. Building Corp. v. United States, 142 F.2d 854, 856 (4th Cir. 1944) (italics sup- plied). We have taken liberties with Judge Parker's last quoted sentence by inserting [arbitration] as indicated. It is believed that he meant "arbitration" contracts generally, because it is clear that the Act concerns the "validity" of such contracts only. With this amendment his text is conformed to that we have quoted from Judge Goodrich. It may be helpful to supplement Judge Parker's statement of the legislative history of the Act with the following detail. The original bill (HR 646), as recommended by the Committee on the Judiciary of the House of Representatives, read (disregarding italics and matter in [ 1) as follows in its first two sections: "Be it enacted, etc., That 'maritime transaction,' as herein defined, means charter parties, bills of lading of water carriers, agreements relating to wharfage, supplies furnished vessels or repairs to vessels, collisions, or any other matters in foreign or interstate commerce which, if the subject of controversy, would be embraced within admiralty jurisdiction; 'commerce,' as herein defined, means commerce among the several States or with foreign nations, or in any Territory of the United States or in the District of Columbia, or between any such Territory and another, or between any such Territory and any State or foreign nation, or between the District of Columbia and any State or Territory or foreign nation, but nothing herein contained shall apply to contracts of employment of seamen, railroad employ- ees, or any other clasosf workers engaged in foreign or interstate commerce. "Sec. 2. That a written provision in any contract or maritime transaction or ['a contract evidencing a'] transaction involving commerce to settle by arbitration a controversy thereafter arising between the parties out of such contract or transaction, or the refusal to perform the whole or any part thereof, or an agreement in writing to submit to arbitration an existing controversy arising out of such a contract, transaction, or refusal, shall be valid, irrevocable, and enforceable, save upon such grounds as exist at law or in equity for the revocation of any contract." The House Committee, in reporting the bill favorably, commented upon it in part as follows: "The purpose of this bill is to make valid and enforceable agreements for arbitration contained in contracts involving interstate commerce or within the jurisdiction of admiralty, or which may be the subject of litigation in the Federal courts. It was drafted by a committee of the American Bar Associa- tion and is sponsored by that association and by a large number of trade bodies whose representatives appeared before the committee on the hearing. There was no opposition to the bill before the committee [Italics supplied]. "The matter is properly the subject of Federal action. Whether an agreement for arbitration shall be enforced or not is a question of procedure to be determined by the law court in which the proceeding is brought and not one of substantive law to be determined by the law of the forum in which the contract is made. Before such contracts could be enforced in the Federal courts, therefore, this law is essential. The bill declares that such agreements shall be recognized and enforced by the courts of the United States. The remedy is founded also upon the Federal control over interstate commerce and over admiralty. The control over interstate commerce reaches not only the actual physical interstate shipment of goods but also contracts relating to interstate commerce. . . ." H. R. No. 96. Before the bill was reported favorably by the Senate Committee on the Judiciary the words in Sections I and 2 as italicized above were deleted and the words in [ ] were added. SEa. REP. No. 536. There is no explanation in the Report why these changes were made. More of the Report is set forth, infra, p. 603. ARBITRATION UNDER THE UNITED STATES ARBITRATION AcT ing commerce." The Senate Committee struck the word "contract" from the section and rewrote the language in its present form, so as to cover only maritime transactions and transactions involving interstate and foreign commerce. Senate Report No. 536, 68th Congress, Zip Mfg. Co. v. Pep Mfg. Co., D. C. 44 F.2d 184. This was evidently done be- cause it was realized that Congress had no power to legislate with respect to the validity o1 [arbitration?] contracts generally but only as to the validity of those which related to matters subject to its control. Judge Parker appears, however, to have amended his foregoing views in the sub- sequent case of International Union United Furniture Workers v. Colonial Hard- wood Flooring Co.'7 In this later case he recognized that the remedies provided in Sections 4 and 5 of the Act are fully within the plenary jurisdiction of the Con- gress to regulate procedure in the federal courts as is the remedy provided in Section 3. Reviewing the legislative history of the Act he noted once more the elimination of "any contract" from Section 2 but further observed that Sections 3, 4, and suc- ceeding sections providing, as he called it, for "compulsory arbitration under court direction," remained unchanged. Since these provisions deal with "procedure in the courts" it was his view that the Congress had "plenary jurisdiction." It seems clear that Section 2, in declaring that qualifying arbitration agreements "shall be valid, irrevocable and enforceable" constitutes a mandate to the courts of the United States to make such agreements so, and to accord the parties the remedies of Sections 3, 4, and 5 to accomplish those ends. It does not purport to deal with the "validity of contracts [or arbitration contracts] generally"; it is a directive only to the courts of the United States and designates what remedies (Sections 3, 4, and 5) those courts shall accord the qualifying agreements. In line with Judge Parker's last cited views, it is doubted that any constitutional limitation required the Congress to restrict the Act with its mandate to the federal courts to written arbitration agreements covering controversies having their source in "maritime transactions" or "commerce" as it appears to have done. It is believed that the Act could have been extended as well to arbitration agreements covering other and different controversies which otherwise may be litigated in the courts of the United States under their established jurisdiction such as in cases of diversity of citizenship of the parties or otherwise. This conclusion is based upon the identification by the courts of the United States of issues of revocability and enforceability of arbitration agreements as matters Df remedy or procedure which as respects the federal courts, are within the plenary power of the Congress. We also note the want of substance of traditional common law revocability and non-enforceability of arbitration agreements and the nature of the legislative reform in arbitration statutes like the United States Act. We present these considerations first, without reference to the decision of the Supreme Court in Erie R. Co. v. Tompkins,'" and then taking into account the ruling in that case and such subsequent cases as seem pertinent. 27 168 F.2d 33 (4th Cir. 1948). 28 304 U. S. 64 (1938).