SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION STORAGE and Photochemical Modes ELECTROCHEMICAL ENERGY STORAGE AND CONVERSION Series Editor: Jiujun Zhang National Research Council Institute for Fuel Cell Innovation Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada Published Titles Electrochemical Supercapacitors for Energy Storage and Delivery: Fundamentals and Applications Aiping Yu, Victor Chabot, and Jiujun Zhang Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells Zhigang Qi Graphene: Energy Storage and Conversion Applications Zhaoping Liu and Xufeng Zhou Electrochemical Polymer Electrolyte Membranes Yan-Jie Wang, David P. Wilkinson, and Jiujun Zhang Lithium-Ion Batteries: Fundamentals and Applications Yuping Wu Lead-Acid Battery Technologies: Fundamentals, Materials, and Applications Joey Jung, Lei Zhang, and Jiujun Zhang Solar Energy Conversion and Storage: Photochemical Modes Suresh C. Ameta and Rakshit Ameta Forthcoming Titles Electrochemical Energy: Advanced Materials and Technologies Pei Kang Shen, Chao-Yang Wang, San Ping Jiang, Xueliang Sun, and Jiujun Zhang Solid Oxide Fuel Cells: From Fundamental Principles to Complete Systems Radenka Maric ELECTROCHEMICAL ENERGY STORAGE AND CONVERSION SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION STORAGE and Photochemical Modes Edited by Suresh C. Ameta Rakshit Ameta CRC Press Taylor & Francis Group 6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300 Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742 © 2016 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business No claim to original U.S. Government works Version Date: 20150916 International Standard Book Number-13: 978-1-4822-4631-5 (eBook - PDF) This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. 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Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at http://www.taylorandfrancis.com and the CRC Press Web site at http://www.crcpress.com Contents Preface..............................................................................................................................................vii Editors ...............................................................................................................................................ix Contributors ......................................................................................................................................xi Chapter 1 Introduction ..................................................................................................................1 Suresh C. Ameta Chapter 2 Photochemical Solar Energy Conversion .....................................................................7 Rakshit Ameta, Chetna Ameta, and Poonam Kumawat Chapter 3 Basic Photoelectrochemistry ......................................................................................17 Purnima Dashora, Meenakshi Joshi, and Suresh C. Ameta Chapter 4 Photoelectrochemical Cells ........................................................................................29 Dipti Soni, Priya Parsoya, Basant K. Menariya, Ritu Vyas, and Rakshit Ameta Chapter 5 Organic Photovoltaic Cells .........................................................................................55 Meenakshi Singh Solanki, Taruna Dangi, Paras Tak, Sanyogita Sharma, and Rakshit Ameta Chapter 6 Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells .........................................................................................85 Rakshit Ameta, Surbhi Benjamin, Shweta Sharma, and Monika Trivedi Chapter 7 Photogalvanic Cells ..................................................................................................115 Yasmin, Abhilasha Jain, Pinki B. Punjabi, and Suresh C. Ameta Chapter 8 Hydrogen: An Alternative Fuel ................................................................................139 Neelu Chouhan, Rajesh Kumar Meena, and Ru-Shi Liu Chapter 9 Photocatalytic Reduction of Carbon Dioxide ...........................................................173 Guoqing Guan, Xiaogang Hao, and Abuliti Abudula Chapter 10 Artificial Photosynthesis ..........................................................................................187 Neelam Kunwar, Sanyogita Sharma, Surbhi Benjamin, and Dmitry Polyansky Chapter 11 Nanomaterials for Solar Energy ...............................................................................219 Mohammad Azad Malik, Sajid Nawaz Malik, and Asma Alenad Chapter 12 Other Solar Cells ......................................................................................................253 Rakshit Ameta Index ..............................................................................................................................................265 v Preface Energy is a fundamental requirement for society. It is essential for industrialization, transportation, urbanization, food materials, and so on. The main conventional energy sources are wood, coal, petrol, diesel, kerosene, and so forth. These sources are being depleted at an ever-increasing pace, resulting in an era of energy crisis. Natural resources are limited, and it has been estimated that they will be completely exhausted in the coming few decades. Therefore, there is an urgent need to find some alternate energy sources to fulfill the energy demands of the world. In this con- text, researchers are stressing the use of solar energy, because it is abundant, inexhaustible, eco- friendly, and relatively low cost. Solar energy can be used to generate electricity or can be stored as chemical energy in the form of hydrogen or reduced products of carbon dioxide. Various methods for converting light energy into electrical energy involve the use of photoelec- trochemical cells, dye-sensitized solar cells, organic photovoltaic cells, photogalvanic cells, and so on. Every method has its own merits or demerits, which can be overcome by continuous and dedicated efforts. Some newer solar cells have been developed by combining or modifying these existing cells. Some examples are plasmonic solar cells, hybrid solar cells, biohybrid solar cells, perovskite solar cells, tandem solar cells, inverted tandem solar cells, and so on. Some of these cells have shown promise as future sources of energy. Hydrogen can be obtained by photosplitting water, which is abundantly available on Earth. Hydrogen has also been advocated as the fuel of the future, because it is nontoxic and has a higher storage capacity. It generates electricity on burning in a fuel cell. The reduction of carbon dioxide to some useful synthetic fuels is another possible system for storing solar energy. Nature does this job by reducing carbon dioxide from the atmosphere in the form of biomass (carbohydrates) and regenerating oxygen. This conversion is the well-known process of photosynthesis. Efforts are being made to mimic this reaction in laboratory conditions (i.e., artificial photosynthesis). Although natu- ral photosynthesis seems to be a simple chemical process, it is mechanistically complex. This is a challenge for chemists and biologists, in general, and photochemists in particular. The development of nanotechnology has added many new frontiers with varied applications. Nanomaterials have smaller size, higher surface-to-volume ratio, and so on, and as a result, they may have some astonishing properties. In the last decade, nanoparticles have been extensively used in different forms (nanorods, nanowire, nanoribbon, etc.), and the time is not far off when these materials will prove their importance in solar cells, enhancing their efficiency as well as reducing water, carbon dioxide, and other materials. In this book, the focus is on photochemical methods of converting and/or storing light energy in the form of electrical or chemical energy. Although efforts have been made to incorporate major work done in this field, due to certain limitations, some important work may have been left out. Readers are welcome to suggest any further improvement in this effort. Suresh C. Ameta Rakshit Ameta vii Editors Suresh C. Ameta obtained his master’s degree from the University of Udaipur, India, and was awarded a Gold Medal in 1970. He secured a first position in master of philosophy in 1978 in Vikram University, Ujjain (Madhya Pradesh, India). He also obtained a PhD from this univer- sity in 1980. He served as professor and head of the Department of Chemistry, North Gujarat University Patan, India (1994) and M. L. Sukhadia University, Udaipur (2002–2005), and served as head of the Department of Polymer Science (2005–2008). He also served as dean of postgradu- ate studies, M. L. Sukhadia University, Udaipur (2004–2008). Now, he is serving as dean of the Faculty of Science, PAHER University, Udaipur. Professor Ameta has occupied the coveted posi- tion of president, Indian Chemical Society, Kolkata, and is now a lifelong vice president (since 2002). He has been the recipient of a number of prizes during his career, including a national prize (twice) for writing chemistry books in Hindi, the Professor M. N. Desai Award, the Professor W. U. Malik Award, the National Teacher Award, the Professor G. V. Bakore Award, and a Lifetime Achievement Award from the Indian Chemical Society. He has successfully guided 71 doctoral students. Professor Ameta has more than 300 research publications to his credit in national and international journals and has served as a reviewer. He has contributed to and authored about 40 undergraduate and postgraduate books (published by Nova Publishers, New York; Taylor & Francis Group, Oxford, United Kingdom; and Trans-Tech Publications, Pfaffikon, Switzerland), including books on green chemistry and microwave-assisted organic synthesis (published by Apple Academic Press, Waretown, New Jersey). In addition, he has delivered lectures and chaired sessions at vari- ous conferences. He completed five major research projects from different funding agencies, such as the Department of Science and Technology, the University Grants Commission, the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research, and the Ministry of Energy, Government of India. Professor Ameta has approximately 43 years of experience in teaching and research. Rakshit Ameta obtained first position, master of science degree and was awarded a Gold Medal in 2002. He received the Fateh Singh Award from the Maharana Mewar Foundation, Udaipur, India, for his meritorious performance. He obtained a PhD in 2005 from M. L. Sukhadia University, Udaipur, India. He has worked at that university as well as at the University of Kota, Kota, India, and presently is an associate professor of chemistry at PAHER University, Udaipur. He has suc- cessfully supervised five doctoral students, and seven more are now researching various aspects of green chemistry. He has authored 70 research publications in national and international journals. Dr. Ameta has organized many national conferences, delivered a number of invited lectures, and chaired sessions at national conferences. He has been elected as scientist in charge, Industrial and Applied Chemistry Section, Indian Chemical Society, Kolkata (2014–2016), and was also elected as a council member of the Indian Chemical Society, Kolkata (2011–2013), and the Indian Council of Chemists, Agra (2012–2014). He has authored five degree-level books and contributed chap- ters in books (published by Nova Publishers, New York; Taylor & Francis Group, Oxford, United Kingdom; and Trans-Tech Publications, Pfaffikon, Switzerland). Two books have been published on the topics of green chemistry and microwave-assisted organic synthesis (Apple Academic Press, Waretown, New Jersey). ix