M a r Social Inequality: Patterns and Processes introduces key concepts, g theories, research findings, and trends associated with the major forms of social e r Martin n. Marger inequality. Students will gain a keen awareness of the subtle and often unseen ways in which inequality is structured, and how it impinges on virtually all facets of individual and group life. The 6th edition carries on the tradition of s highly accessible and concise narratives, and includes extensive coverage of the o latest issues in society both domestic and cross-nationally. c Features oF the 6th edition: i a • Each dimension of inequality is presented in a separate chapter to l increase clarity and understanding of distinct but interrelated themes. I • Numerous tables and figures illustrate the continued expansion of the N income and wealth gaps in American society and the declining trend of E social mobility. q • New extensive discussions of the economic downturn of the late 2000s, U the effects of globalization on the workforce, wealth distribution, and more. A • Thorough explanation of the impact of ideology in shaping and stabilizing l I the class, racial/ethnic, and gender hierarchies. T y What instructors are saying about Social inequality: P “This is a highly readable text that brings the realities of social class in American a t to life for students. I rarely use traditional textbooks, but have used this one for t e over a decade.” -Karen Sternheimer, University of Southern California r M n D “Students love that it is concise, well written, easy to understand and balanced. s D The price is still affordable and it is very organized.” Donna Goyer, California a AL State University- San Marcos nd IM c“oTmhims ubnoiocka tiisn gc otnhcei smee, cahcacneiscssi bolef iannedq ucaolmityp raesh weneslli vaes. iItts d toheeso rae gtirceaal ta jnodb of Pro social #122555 c 9 ideological foundations.” -Jennifer Johnson, Virginia Commonwealth University e 02 s sixth edition /0 s 6/1 e 2 Visit the dedicated online learning center for instructor resources! s CY A http://www.mhhe.com/marger6e N M INEqUAlITy A sixth G edition Y E L O B L K Patterns and Processes mmaarr2266993388__ffmm__ii--xxvvii..iinndddd PPaaggee ii 2244//0011//1133 1100::1100 AAMM uusseerr //220011//MMHH0011884411//mmaarr2266993388__ddiisskk11ooff11//00007788002266993388//mmaarr2266993388__ppaaggeeffiilleess Social Inequality Patterns and Processes Sixth Edition Martin N. Marger TM mmaarr2266993388__ffmm__ii--xxvvii..iinndddd PPaaggee iiii 1199//0022//1133 99::3377 PPMM uusseerr //220011//MMHH0011884411//mmaarr2266993388__ddiisskk11ooff11//00007788002266993388//mmaarr2266993388__ppaaggeeffiilleess TM SOCIAL INEQUALITY: PATTERNS AND PROCESSES, SIXTH EDITION Published by McGraw-Hill, a business unit of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 1221 Avenue of the Americas, New York, NY 10020. Copyright © 2014 by Martin N. Marger. All rights reserved. Printed in the United States of America. Previous editions © 2011, 2008, 2005, and 2002. No part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, or stored in a database or retrieval system, without the prior written consent of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., including, but not limited to, in any network or other electronic storage or transmission, or broadcast for distance learning. Some ancillaries, including electronic and print components, may not be available to customers outside the United States. This book is printed on acid-free paper 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 DOC/DOC 1 0 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 ISBN 978-0-07-802693-5 MHID 0-07-8026938 Senior Vice President, Products & Markets: Kurt L. Strand Vice President, General Manager, Products & Markets: Michael Ryan Vice President, Content Production & Technology Services: Kimberly Meriwether David Executive Director of Development: Lisa Pinto Managing Director: Gina Boedeker Brand Manager: Courtney Austermehle Marketing Specialist: Alexandra Schultz Managing Development Editor: Sara Jaeger Editorial Coordinator: Adina Lonn Director, Content Production: Terri Schiesl Buyer: Nichole Birkenholz Project Manager: Judi David Media Project Manager: Sridevi Palani Cover Designer: Studio Montage, St. Louis, MO. Cover Image: John Foxx/Getty Images Typeface: 10/12 Palatino Compositor: Aptara®, Inc. Printer: R.R. Donnelly All credits appearing on page or at the end of the book are considered to be an extension of the copyright page. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Marger, Martin. Social inequality : patterns and processes / Martin N. Marger, Michigan State University. — Sixth edition. pages cm Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN-13: 978-0-07-802693-5 (alk. paper) ISBN-10: 0-07-802693-8 (alk. paper) 1. Equality. 2. Social classes. 3. Social structure. 4. Marginality, Social. I. Title. HM821.M37 2013 305—dc23 2012051477 The Internet addresses listed in the text were accurate at the time of publication. The inclusion of a website does not indicate an endorsement by the authors or McGraw-Hill, and McGraw-Hill does not guarantee the accuracy of the information presented at these sites. www.mhhe.com mmaarr2266993388__ffmm__ii--xxvvii..iinndddd PPaaggee iiiiii 2244//0011//1133 1100::1100 AAMM uusseerr //220011//MMHH0011884411//mmaarr2266993388__ddiisskk11ooff11//00007788002266993388//mmaarr2266993388__ppaaggeeffiilleess Contents Preface x Chapter 1: An Introduction to the Study of Social Inequality 1 Major Issues in the Study of Social Inequality 3 Key Questions 4 A Comparative Approach 5 Examining Inequality in a Sociological Mode 5 The Sociological Mode 6 Objectives of Inquiry 10 Individuals and Social Forces 12 Some Basic Terms and Concepts in the Study of Inequality 13 Social Differentiation 13 Social Stratification 14 Stratification Forms 16 Structured Inequality 17 Life Chances and Inequality of Opportunity 17 Stability in Systems of Inequality 20 Change in Systems of Inequality 21 Equity versus Liberty 23 Summary 24 Chapter 2: Theories of Class and Social Inequality 26 Marx’s Theory of Social Inequality 27 The Economic Foundation 28 The Class Division 29 Class Conflict and Societal Change 31 Marxian Theory in Summary 33 The Failure of Marx’s Vision 33 iii mmaarr2266993388__ffmm__ii--xxvvii..iinndddd PPaaggee iivv 2244//0011//1133 1100::1100 AAMM uusseerr //220011//MMHH0011884411//mmaarr2266993388__ddiisskk11ooff11//00007788002266993388//mmaarr2266993388__ppaaggeeffiilleess iv Contents Enduring Points of Marx’s Theory 35 Revising Marx 36 Weber: The Inevitability of Inequality 38 Class 38 Status 39 Party 40 Weber on Power 41 Weber’s Contribution to Inequality Theory 42 Dahrendorf: Neo-Weberian 43 Bourdieu: Forms of Capital 44 Functionalism and Conflict Theory 46 Functional Theory: The Need for Inequality 47 Conflict Theory: The Dysfunctions of Inequality 48 Lenski’s Synthesis 50 Summary 52 Chapter 3: The American Class System 54 Social Class: A Two-Dimensional Picture 54 Economic Class 54 Class as Lifestyle 55 Popular Notions of the American Class Structure 56 The Reality of Class in the United States 57 The Six-Part American Class Structure 57 The Distribution of Income 63 The Distribution of Wealth 67 Change and Continuity in Economic Inequality 71 Trends in the Distribution of Income and Wealth 71 Looking Beyond 75 Economic Inequality: A Comparative Perspective 77 Summary 80 Chapter 4: The Upper Class and the Power Elite 82 The Upper Class 82 Income 82 Wealth 85 The Rich: Old and New 88 The Privileges of Wealth 91 Inheritance, Effort, and Wealth 93 mmaarr2266993388__ffmm__ii--xxvvii..iinndddd PPaaggee vv 2244//0011//1133 1100::1100 AAMM uusseerr //220011//MMHH0011884411//mmaarr2266993388__ddiisskk11ooff11//00007788002266993388//mmaarr2266993388__ppaaggeeffiilleess Contents v The Power Elite: Patterns and Theory 95 The Relationship between the Upper Class and the Power Elite 95 Social Class and the Power Elite 100 The Social-Class Origins of U.S. Elites 102 Paths to Power 105 The Elite Recruitment Process 105 The Systemic Nature of Elite Recruitment 107 Power Elites in Other Societies 108 Summary 109 Chapter 5: The Middle Classes 111 Historical Development of the Middle Classes 112 Formation of the Middle Classes in the United States 112 Industrialization and the Changing Class Structure 113 Postindustrialism 114 The Classes in the Middle and the Occupational Structure 116 The Upper-Middle Class 116 The Lower-Middle Class 117 The Working Class 117 The Changing U.S. Economy and the Classes in the Middle 120 The Growth of the Middle Classes 120 The Shrinking Middle 122 Economic Restructuring and the Classes in the Middle 126 Technological Changes 127 Globalization 128 The Decline of Labor Unions 134 Downsizing, Outsourcing, and Offshoring 135 Demographic Factors 137 Public Policies and the Shrinking Middle 139 The Middle Classes: Lifestyles, Desires, and Debt 140 The New Consumerism 140 Consumer Debt 142 The End of the New Consumerism? 144 Summary 144 Chapter 6: Poverty and the Poor 146 Defining Poverty 147 Absolute Poverty 147 mmaarr2266993388__ffmm__ii--xxvvii..iinndddd PPaaggee vvii 2244//0011//1133 1100::1100 AAMM uusseerr //220011//MMHH0011884411//mmaarr2266993388__ddiisskk11ooff11//00007788002266993388//mmaarr2266993388__ppaaggeeffiilleess vi Contents Relative Poverty 147 Official Poverty 148 Who Are the Poor? 150 The Poor and Those at Risk 150 Poverty Trends 153 The Working Poor and the Underclass 156 The Working Poor 156 The Underclass 160 Why Are the Poor Poor? 163 Individual-Focused Explanations 163 Structure-Focused Explanations 167 Popular Views of Poverty 171 Public Policies and Poverty 172 Welfare Programs 172 Poverty in Comparative Perspective 178 Summary 181 Chapter 7: Stratification Systems and Social Mobility 183 Systems of Stratification 184 Slavery 185 Caste 190 Estate 194 Class Systems 197 Patterns of Social Mobility in Modern Societies 197 Measurements of Mobility 198 Mobility Trends 199 Mobility in Historical Perspective 203 Determinants of Social Mobility 204 Structural Mobility 204 Individual Mobility 205 Education and the Process of Mobility 212 Education: The Key Life Chance 213 Summary 218 Chapter 8: Ideology and the Legitimation of Inequality 220 Legitimation 221 mmaarr2266993388__ffmm__ii--xxvvii..iinndddd PPaaggee vviiii 2244//0011//1133 1100::1100 AAMM uusseerr //220011//MMHH0011884411//mmaarr2266993388__ddiisskk11ooff11//00007788002266993388//mmaarr2266993388__ppaaggeeffiilleess Contents vii The Nature of Ideology 222 Dominant Ideologies 223 Ideology: Beliefs and Reality 225 The Dominant American Ideology 226 Individual Achievement 226 Equality of Opportunity 230 Meritocracy and Universalism 230 The Work Ethic 234 Liberal Capitalism 235 Ancillary Beliefs 237 Persistence and Change in the American Ideology 239 Legitimation, Ideology, and Socialization 242 Socialization 242 Legitimation, Socialization, and the School 243 The Mass Media in the Legitimation Process 246 Summary 253 Chapter 9: Public Policy and the Class System 255 The Political Economy 255 Capitalism, Democracy, and Inequality 258 Macroeconomic Policy 260 Taxation: How Much, from Whom 260 Government Spending: On What, for Whom 266 Categories of Government Spending 266 Welfare for the Poor, the Middle, and the Wealthy 267 The U.S. Welfare State in Comparative Perspective 272 The Scope and Impact of the U.S. Welfare State 272 Accounting for the Difference 275 Public Perceptions of Government Spending 277 Government Regulation 278 Regulatory Agencies 278 Efforts to Influence the Business Cycle 279 Partisan Differences in Public Policy in the Modern Era 281 Competing Approaches to the Political Economy 282 More or Less Inequality? Policy Choices 286 Summary 287 mmaarr2266993388__ffmm__ii--xxvvii..iinndddd PPaaggee vviiiiii 2244//0011//1133 1100::1100 AAMM uusseerr //220011//MMHH0011884411//mmaarr2266993388__ddiisskk11ooff11//00007788002266993388//mmaarr2266993388__ppaaggeeffiilleess viii Contents Chapter 10: Racial/Ethnic Stratification 289 Ethnicity and Race 289 Ethnicity 290 Race 291 Racial-Ethnic Categories 292 The American Ethnic Configuration 294 Racial-Ethnic Stratification: Majority and Minority 295 Minority Groups 295 Dominant Groups 297 The Relativity of Dominant Status and Minority Status 298 The Origins of Ethnic Stratification 298 The Intersection of Class and Ethnicity 301 The American Ethnic Hierarchy 302 Ethnicity and the Economic Hierarchy 303 African Americans 306 Hispanic Americans 310 Asian Americans 311 Native Americans 314 Ethnicity and Power 315 Prejudice and Discrimination 318 Social Integration 321 Stability and Change in the American Ethnic Hierarchy 322 Efforts at Changing the Hierarchy 322 Affirmative Action 323 Summary 328 Chapter 11: Gender Inequality 330 Gender Differentiation 332 Sex and Gender 332 Gender Stratification 333 Why Gender Inequality? 333 Sexism and Sexist Stereotypes 335 Gender Inequality in the Workforce: Continuity and Change 336 Labor Force Participation 337 Occupational Concentration 339 Earnings 342 Authority 346 Work and the Family 347 mmaarr2266993388__ffmm__ii--xxvvii..iinndddd PPaaggee iixx 0044//0022//1133 88::0099 PPMM uusseerr //220011//MMHH0011884411//mmaarr2266993388__ddiisskk11ooff11//00007788002266993388//mmaarr2266993388__ppaaggeeffiilleess Contents ix Patterns of Gender Inequality: Politics, the Corporation, and Education 348 Gender Inequality in the Political World 349 Gender Inequality in the Corporate World 350 Women and Education 353 The Status of Women in Global Perspective 354 Discrimination 354 Political and Economic Power 359 The Feminist Movement 361 Feminism 361 Summary 363 Chapter 12: Political Inequality 365 Political Stratification 365 The Scope and Dimensions of Power 365 Elites and Masses 367 Three Models of Power in America 370 The Class Model 370 The Power Elite Model 373 The Pluralist Model 374 The American Power Structure: Unity and Division 377 Power in America: An Integrated Model 377 The Role of Masses in the System of Power 381 Political Participation: A Key Life Chance 381 The Effective—and Costly—Forms of Participation 383 Political Participation and Social Class 392 Participation and Elite Accountability 395 Mass Participation and the Class Structure 397 Noninstitutional Forms of Participation 398 Summary 402 Glossary 404 References 412 Index 459