SOCIAL CONSTRUCTIONISM AND THE POSSIBILITY OF EMANCIPATION ABIGAIL KLASSEN A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED TO THE FACULTY OF GRADUATE STUDIES IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY GRADUATE PROGRAM IN PHILOSOPHY YORK UNIVERSITY TORONTO, ONTARIO August 2016 © Abigail Klassen, 2016 ABSTRACT In this dissertation, I attempt to accomplish two main objectives. First, I attempt to clarify what social construction amounts to in contemporary analytic philosophy. Research on the social construction of social categories has done some work to delineate and clarify varieties of social constructionist projects, as well as varieties of social phenomena. However, little research has been done to examine the meanings and tractability of the notions that social constructionists employ. As a second objective, I therefore take on the task of making clearer the meanings and implications of “non-inevitability” and “amelioration.” Both objectives involve attending to the programs of various social constructionists and attempting to merge their programs into a single coherent account. In so doing, I put forth my own construal of what social construction amounts to, as well as what it means to say that something is a social construction in both the institutional and non-institutional contexts. I provide tractable and plausible, if coarse-grained, accounts of what social constructionists might have in mind when they cite the notion of non-inevitability in their projects. I also explore the plausibility of social constructionism’s ameliorative or emancipatory potential, asking whether or how modifying our social categories and concepts can have ethical and political implications and asking what those implications might be. I defend social constructionist programs, especially those of the ameliorative variety, from the possibly vitiating forces of the status quo, as well as from relativism concerning what or who counts or should count as some social kind X and the issue of what determines or what should determine X’s extension. Related to these issues, I explore the nature of the difficulties involved in changing aspects of the social world. Difficulties related to the possibility of change and amelioration include the complexity of multiple coexisting ideologies, the problem of how to isolate ideologies and their source(s), and the non-volitional character of beliefs. ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to express my gratitude to my supervisor, Professor Muhammad Ali Khalidi. Your guidance, expertise, understanding, and patience added considerably to my dissertation project and my graduate experience as a whole. Further, your direction and our conversations greatly assisted me in all aspects of my research, writing, and thinking. MAK, though you did sometimes enforce a life without music or poetry, I am thankful for the times you brought me back to Earth when I was often floating too far and for too long. Thanks too for sticking by me through all of what being my being Abigail Klassen entails - the adventures and the many, many misadventures. My sincere thanks to my other dissertation committee members, Professor Lorraine Code and Professor David Jopling, for your insights, input, and encouragement. Lorraine, I do ask myself from time to time, “What would Professor Code do?” You’re a wonderful mixture of intelligence, caring, and snappiness. To Professor Ian Hacking as well, my thanks for your guidance and for the books and articles you’ve written that inspired me to take on the topic of social constructionism in the first place. Thank you to Professor Shannon Dea and Professor Susan Ehrlich for taking time out from their busy schedules to serve as my external readers and to Professor Claudine Verheggen for agreeing to serve as the Dean’s Representative for this project. I would also like to express my sincere thanks to Sally Haslanger (MIT), Marysia Zalewski (University of Aberdeen), Ron Mallon (Washington University in St. Louis), Ásta Sveinsdóttir (San Francisco State University), and John R. Searle (Berkeley) who provided me with opportunities to engage in discussion and expand my knowledge as a visiting student at their respective institutions. Coming to know them was extremely insightful in both an intellectual and a human context. Many thanks as well to Julie Birkle and Debbie Lee Keltz-Wolk for their continuous support throughout the years, to the fourth floor janitor (Margaret?) for late night conversations and shared snacks, to Leslie MacMillan for a constant supply of Tim Hortons and Starbucks gift cards, and to Marc Champagne, Josh Mugg, and Andrew Molas for just being themselves. My doctoral experience and this dissertation project would not have been possible without the financial assistance of the Department of Philosophy at York University. In this respect, a very special thanks goes out to the Department for granting me the Graduate Fellowship for Distinction in Philosophy. I am also grateful to the Government of Canada for SSHRC awards over the years and to the Province of Ontario for Ontario Graduate Scholarship funding. Mom and Dad, I can’t thank you enough for all you do for me. Mostly, thanks for making me laugh. As you both say, “At least visiting you is never boring.” iii TABLE OF CONTENTS Abstract ............................................................................................................................... ii Acknowledgements ............................................................................................................ iii Table of Contents ............................................................................................................... iv General Introduction ............................................................................................................1 Chapter One: Social Ontology, Social Categories, Kinds, and Powers 1.0 Introduction .......................................................................................................8 1.1 An Overview of the Searlian Program ............................................................10 1.2 Searlian Collective Intentionality ....................................................................13 1.3 Language and the Imposition of Function .......................................................21 1.4 Deontic Powers ................................................................................................25 1.5 Latent and Manifest Functions and Agentive and Non-Agentive Kinds ................................................................................35 1.6 Other Outliers ..................................................................................................38 1.7 Social Kinds, Realism, the Possibility of the Discovery of New Social Facts, and Critique .................................................42 1.8 Ásta: Hyper-Contextual Property Conferral ...................................................49 1.9 Conclusion ......................................................................................................59 Chapter Two: Social Construction and the Debunking Project 2.0 Introduction .....................................................................................................60 2.1 Hacking’s Delineation of Social Constructionist Projects ..............................65 2.2 Hacking and Non-Inevitability ........................................................................67 2.3 Hacking and Haslanger on Idea- and Object-Constructionism .......................69 2.4 Interactive Kinds and the Looping Effect ........................................................73 2.5 Haslanger’s Resisting Reality: Approaches to the Question “What is X?” ...................................................................................................76 2.6 Haslanger on Discursive Construction and Thick and Thin Social Roles ............................................................................................80 2.7 Positionality, a Return to Ásta’s Conferralism, and Intersectionality ...............................................................................................85 2.8 Haslanger on Ideology and Debunking Widowhood: Ideology/Hegemony ..................................................................96 2.9 Conclusion .....................................................................................................107 Chapter Three: On the Complexities of Ideological Analysis and Dispute 3.0 Introduction ...................................................................................................108 3.1 Descriptive versus Critical Theories and Ideology in the Descriptive Sense ..........................................................................................109 3.2 A Closer Examination of Haslanger’s “Ideology,” Ásta’s Social Maps, Ideology/Ideologies, and Schemas/Structures ................................................................................115 iv 3.3 Haslanger and MacKinnon on the Epistemology and Metaphysics of Social Phenomena .........................................................127 3.4 Are Crop-Tops Cute? A Case Study in Ideological Dispute .........................129 3.5 A More Careful Examination of Seventh Grade Girls’ Cute/Dork Ideology ......................................................................................134 3.6 Making Sense of Disagreement: Haslanger on the Objectivist, Subjectivist, and Framework Readings .........................................................142 3.7 Empirical Research Supporting Haslanger’s Articulation of Puzzle 3 ................................................................................147 3.8 Recapping the Crop-Top Dispute ..................................................................148 3.9 Conclusion .....................................................................................................150 Chapter Four: “Non-Inevitability,” the Hegemony of the Status Quo, and Relativism 4.0 Introduction ...................................................................................................151 4.1 Non-Inevitability ...........................................................................................153 4.2 Putting Social Phenomena’s Commitments to Inevitability and Alterability into Practice ........................................................................164 4.3 Getting Clearer on Alteration, Amelioration, Progress, and Debunking ..............................................................................................167 4.4 The Status Quo Objection: A Return to Thick Conceptions of Widowhood .........................................................................174 4.5 The Relativism Criticism: Solipsistic and Aporetic Relativism ...............................................................................185 4.6 Negotiating Disagreement .............................................................................189 4.7 Relativism/Contextualism and Amelioration ................................................196 4.8 Conclusion .....................................................................................................207 General Conclusion ..........................................................................................................208 Bibliography .................................................................................................................. ccxii v GENERAL INTRODUCTION The thesis I defend is two-fold: I articulate what social constructionism amounts to and put forward a particular understanding of what it is for something to be a social construction. To do so, I integrate the contributions of some very different philosophers (John R. Searle, Ian Hacking, Sally Haslanger, among others) into a single coherent account. In order to defend this thesis, my dissertation involves two main modes of analysis and critique. First, it attempts to clarify what social construction amounts to in contemporary analytic philosophy. This exercise involves analyzing differences between categories and kinds in the natural and social sciences, as well as in the everyday world. It also involves examining notions often employed, but rarely explained by social constructionists (e.g. “inevitability”). I pay special attention to “ways of being a person” or to “kinds of people,” to use Ian Hacking’s language. Within analytic philosophy, research on the social construction of social categories has done some work to delineate and clarify varieties of social constructionist projects, but much less work has been done in examining the plausibility of social constructionism’s ameliorative or emancipatory potential. I attempt to provide such a critical response. As a second objective, I ask whether or how modifying social categories and concepts can have ethical and political implications and also ask what those implications might be. I approach the issue of what social constructionism amounts to using the conceptual tools of analytic philosophy, especially contemporary analytic metaphysics and epistemology. In later chapters, I draw on insights and tools provided by Karl Marx, as well as present day philosophers Linda Martín Alcoff, Lorraine Code, Brian Fay, and Raymond Geuss. 1 In current humanities and social sciences, it is almost commonplace to claim that certain categories and kinds are socially constructed. Usually, social constructionism is associated with the “science wars” and is taken as a radical antirealist position with respect to scientific findings and reality in general. Aside from a few exceptions, investigation into the metaphysics of social reality, rather than physical reality or reality writ large, has not received sufficient attention from analytic philosophers, especially from philosophers of social science, social ontologists, and metaphysicians. To date, most research into social kinds and categories conducted under the umbrella of social constructionism has focused on some particular category or kind (especially gender and race)1, while less attention has been paid to social kinds in general or to the metaphysics and epistemology of social constructionism understood as a broad metaphysical or political program. The philosophers in whom I am interested are not best characterized as part of the current social constructionist trend in the social sciences and humanities, especially in gender, race, cultural, queer, and women’s studies. Instead, the philosophers with whom I engage are better described as independently attempting to understand the metaphysics and epistemology of social categories, including what it means to say that these categories are socially constructed. I contrast two broad kinds of social constructionism - (i) descriptive and (ii) ameliorative or emancipatory. Ameliorative or emancipatory constructionism is propounded by some social scientists, various branches of the humanities, grassroots interest groups, and philosophers. These constructionists attempt to show that categories and kinds usually thought to be natural or inevitable are really socially founded or non- 1 Related and newly burgeoning disciplines include social and feminist metaphysics. Racial analyses are becoming increasingly predominant in the United States and in the United Kingdom, class analyses are becoming increasingly predominant. 2 inevitable and, as such, can be amended or even discarded altogether. It is also possible that some non-social kinds are mutable due to social factors,2 but my concerns do not lie with such kinds. Sometimes a category is obviously social and in such cases, the goal of the social constructionist is to make clearer the metaphysics that underpins the category and to suggest that it is in some way problematic or unexpected. It is worth noting that the creation or discovery of an unexpected category is not always problematic. Across time, new categories and concepts such as sexual harassment, for example, have opened spaces for an entire new range of debate, as did feminism and numerous other categories, concepts, and theoretical lenses. Sally Haslanger clearly and succinctly distinguishes between descriptive and ameliorative social constructionism in Resisting Reality: Social Constructionism and Social Critique (2012), though she does not suggest, of course, that the distinction between the descriptive and ameliorative is specific to social constructionism. Quite the contrary: indeed, she assumes that they are traditional ways of pursuing philosophical analysis. Descriptive programs ask “What is X?” where X is some category or kind and ameliorative or emancipatory versions ask “What do we want X to be?” or “What should X be?” Ameliorative projects thus have both descriptive and normative components since the possibility of the latter is, at least to some extent, parasitic on the former. By way of contrast with ameliorative or emancipatory social constructionists, the descriptive social constructionist resembles the social ontologist. Rather than advancing an ethical or political agenda, the descriptive social constructionist is primarily interested in making clear the metaphysics of social kinds. A difference between social ontologists and descriptive social constructionists, as I see it, is that the former propound more 2 For an account of the possibility of interactive (Hacking-style) non-human kinds, see Khalidi (2010). 3 general projects (e.g. What are the conditions of possibility of any social world?) and the latter focus on the metaphysics of some particular social phenomenon or category (adoption, schizophrenic). Both descriptive and ameliorative social constructionist projects represent metaphysical programs since they attempt to reveal the nature of social categories or kinds. In the case of ameliorative versions, the metaphysical picture that the constructionist presents - one that typically purports to show that some kind usually thought to be natural, given, fixed, or necessary is really non-inevitable or socially founded or constituted - is introduced to allow for the possibility of critique which, in turn, can lend itself to reform. Social construction can be of at least two other forms, which although easily delineated analytically, are not usually mutually exclusive in practice, and are difficult to disentangle. Idea-construction3 is the thesis that some or all of our classifications or categorizations of phenomena, things, and people into kinds depend on social rather than natural factors.4 Ontological construction is the thesis that some kinds and human differences (e.g. gender, race, body size, stature) are not natural, but are caused or constituted by social factors.5 This thesis stands in contrast to the notion that the existence of such differences points to the existence of natural kinds, and thus, that the differences are mind- or concept-independent aspects of reality rather than the results of the categories that human beings use to describe reality. The construal of some human differences as amounting to differences in kind is faithful to the distinction between 3 I write ‘idea-construction’ rather than ‘idea construction’ in accordance with Hacking’s usage from The Social Construction of What? (1999). Idea- versus object-construction is a topic I address in the following chapter. 4 This version is analyzed by Hacking (1999). 5 Thanks to Sally Haslanger for pointing out that the contrast between the natural and the social has also been challenged by social constructionists. As such, it may seem awkward to invoke the contrast in characterizing their views. Despite the importance of this challenge, I bracket the issue herein. 4 categories and kinds, which at least some realists would maintain. Though the distinction between idea- and ontological construction is sometimes difficult to draw, I attempt as much as possible to keep the distinction clear when discussing particular categories and cases. When referring to a mental item, I use italics (e.g. woman) and when referring to instances or tokens of a concept, kind, or set, I write in plain characters (e.g. woman). Unless noted otherwise, I use ‘category’ and ‘kind’ interchangeably to maintain consistency with ordinary language. There is also the distinction between categories and properties of which to remain mindful. To say that Mary is a woman, for instance, is to say that Mary belongs to the category woman and that being a woman is a property that Mary possesses. The category woman encompasses those individuals who have the property being a woman and individuals who possess the property being a woman fall under the category woman. This dissertation deals with social kinds in general, but mostly with ways of being a person. In addressing ways of being a person, following Hacking’s usage, my use of kind-terms corresponds to “kinds of people.” In adopting Hacking’s sense of “kind,” I make use of a notion that is colloquial and thus also vague. The meaning of “kind” that Hacking intends is the meaning captured by such ordinary utterances as “She is such and such kind of person (a mother, a meth addict, a stamp collector).” Ways of being a person refer to intensional descriptions that people take up (or apply to others) and live out qua some kind (an uncle, a binge eater, a professor). Importantly, Hacking’s use of “kind” implies no essentialism or other features typically associated with kinds as they are described in the natural kind tradition. Though Hacking subscribes to nominalism, I leave 5